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POWER + BORDERS (Global Governance in Conflict (Circumstances (Citizens…

- - - - Pakistan complains that India damns upper tributaries which flow through that part of Kashmir under Indian control
    - - Rapid growth of their populations increasing demands for water
      - The water resource is depleting as global warming causes Himalayan glaciers to retreat
  - - - Represents patterns of conflict worldwide
      - 23 indicators grouped into 3 categories
        
        Degree of militarisation
        
        Level of safety and security
        
        Number of international and domestic conflicts
      - World has become less peaceful over the last 10 years but has improved over the last year
      - Decline in militarisation over last 30 years
    - - The UN Charter gives the Security Council primary responsibility for maintain international peace and security
      - Methods
        
        Preventative diplomacy
        
        Peace-keeping/building
        
        Counter-terrorism
        
        Treaty-making
        
        Disarmament
        
        Humanitarism aid
        
        Sustainable development
      - Policies are operated as part of a global partnership to give its interventions legitimacy and, sustainability and global reach
      - SOUTH SUDAN
    - - Alliance of European and N American countries
      - Safeguards freedom and security of its 28 members
      - Politcally
        
        Promotes democratic values
        
        Encourages co-operation on defence and security measures to help prevent conflict
      - Militarily
        
        Can undertake crisis management alone, or in co-operation with other countries and organisations
    - - Intervene in conflict zones
      - Co-operate with global institutions, national and local governments and local residents
      - Humanitarian relief
      - Monitor and give early warnings of new violence
      - Strengthens local institutions, law and democratic processes
      - SOUTH SUDAN + MALI
  - - - Western European countries + allies (USA + Canada)
      - Signed 4/4/1949
      - Binds America to defend Europe
        
        America has the 2nd largest arsenal of nuclear weapons ww
        
        Allows USA to have military presence across Europe = easier to launch a more effective defence in event of a Soviet attack
      - 29 member coutnries
      - Armed forces remain under control of its member country unless required by NATO
      - Ensured peace in its territories for 70 years
      - The Cold War defined the alliance, and it ended in 1989
    - - Each member pays a certain amount into the NATO budget based on an agreed formula
      - NATO requires member states to spend 2% of their nation's GDP on defence
    - - Was formed in response to eastern block countries + Russia: the Cold War
      - USA was a major ally because the other Western countries had little firepower
      - Because of NATO, the Cold War dissolved with no real conflict
    - - NATO's power to deter aggression = Europe's safety
      - After Cold War = period of no obvious threat - so it's relevance was called into question
      - Today there is a new era of instability e.g. Putin
        
        Russia's annexation of Crimea was the first of a European territory since 1945
        
        Invasion of E Ukraine = 9,000 dead and 1.7 million IDPs
      - Relations with non-member countries since 90s - helps security
    - - If a NATO ally is the victim of an armed attack, all other members will consider this as an attack against them all and will take the actions it deems necessary to assist
      - First evoked for the 9/11
        
        Anti-terror operation: Eagle Assist
        
        830 crew members from 13 NATO countries deployed
  - - - Satellite imagery
      - Drones
      - Weaponary
  - - - Newest state - 2011
      - Landlocked country in E-central Africa
      - Oil generate 98% of income
      - Internal conflict
        
        Underdevelopment of infrastructure and industry
        
        Widespread poverty
        
        Most of the population depends on subsistence agriculture
      - Dinka and Neur are the largest ethnic groups
      - Poor governance in nation building since independence
        
        2013 - conflict between Dink president and Neur vice-president = serious armed conflcit
        
        1.5 million IDPs and thousands dead
        
        730,000 refugees in neighbouring countries
        
        1/3 of children suffer malnutrition
      - Effective co-operation from different groups is difficult because of obstruction from the government
    - - Protects 20,000 people at Juba
      - UN Peacekeeping Mission was reinforced in 2014 with a new mandate
      - 2013 - increased military presence
        
        12,500 military personnel
        
        100 police
      - UNICEF
        
        Fertility rate is 5.3 and 45% of population is under 15
    - - Continuation of human rights violations in Unity and Upper Nile provinces
        
        Attacks on UN peacekeepers and IDPs under UN protection, near Juba
      - Has signed treaties against torture, discriminations against women and children's rights
      - Lack of government co-operation = LLT challenges
        
        Alleviating poverty
        
        Improving the business environment
        
        Negotiating water and grazing rights on the Central African Republic border
        
        Human trafficking
    - - Work with UN to assist local communities
      - Harassment and violence against NGO workers
        
        Forced evacuation of the Upper Nile state = populations vulnerable
        
        Blocking the use of the Nile for food relief
      - MSF, Save the Children, Oxfam
    - - Positives
        
        Aid agencies co-ordinated efforts to provide essential supplies during the dry season = easier access to emergency food during wet season when roads are difficult
        
        Training for villagers in maintain livestock health and use of fishing equipment to improve LT food security
        
        MSF - treatment for children with acute malnutrition
        
        Aid agencies negotiated access in areas where fighting is ongoin
        
        Civil protection camps have been expanded for IDPs = shelter food etc.
        
        WHO and health partners have set up cholera treatment centres and provide advice on hygiene and access to clean drinking water
        
        Co-ordinated efforts have secured funds from various European governments
      - Negatives
        
        Transport routes blocked and aid agencies have been extorted for their resources in Upper Nile and Unity states = residents suffered
        
        People have had to abandon their homes
        
        Starvation, illness
        
        Children forced in military training camps
- - - - Governments attempt to build a sense of nationality among its citizens
- - - - Contested Territory - Russia's annexation of Crimea + support for separatists in Ukraine
  - - - Very large corporate enterprises that operate in over 1 country
      - Driving force of global economic integration
      - Need to have clear policies to achieve their corporate and social responsibility to conform to the UN Global Compact
    - - Local people receive training and learn new skills
      - Small, peripheral economies depend on the economic and social benefits derived from TNC investment
        
        Local multiplier effect - lifts populations above the poverty line and stimulates affiliated industries
      - Bring new technology into the host country
      - Local businesses may benefit from TNC training, skills and information = able to start up their own MF/ service business
      - A well-known TNC can boost the country's reputation and attract further international investment
      - FDI brought to the host country
      - TNCs will often support infrastructure projects
      - Enables host country to share in global economic integration and wealth generation
      - Some TNCs give food + lodging to their workers = jobs for locals
      - To maintain good relations, TNCs will often engage in social and environmental projects
    - - LIDCs are reliant on TNCs to integrate their economy into the global market and encourage developmet
      - Many have expanded operations in the last 20 years regardless of state boundaries
      - Some nation-states have in part lost control of territory, workforce and, environment and political decision-making = inability to protect its citizens
      - Business decisions to invest or not affects the lives of many and as been taken outside the host country which has little/no involvement
      - Disrespect for human rights - exploitation of working populations, low wages, demands for overtime hours, poor working conditions, child labour and discouragement of trade unions
      - Use of machines may reduce need for local employment
      - TNCs may compete with host country's industries and prevent growth of the domestic MF industry
      - Most profits got to companies and shareholders overseas
      - Wages may only meet minimum standards (inc. overtime) - and deductiosn from this for food and lodging
      - Trade unions and workers' groups are often discouraged in industrial areas where TNCs are set up = difficult for workers to secure a decent working and living conditions
      - Workers who challenge conditions in factories can lose their job
      - Little job security and no work benefits
      - Poor health and safety conditions
      - Their decisions do not necessarily consider the LT development of the host country
      - May ignore local pollution/environmental laws/are able to pay fines without any change to their practise or else threaten to withdraw from the country
  - - - Factory collapse April, YEAR???
      - Popular brands used Rana Plaza, an illegally constructed building in Dhaka
      - Rana Plaza collapsed, killed over 1,100 people
      - Several major companies have either signed/pledged to sign a landmark agreement to pay for fire and safety improvements
        
        Shift in corporate responsibility
        
        Shows how far down the supply chain companies can be held responsible
        
        New safety accord also requires companies to educate their workforce on speaking up on labour safety
        
        = more support for unions
        
        NB: Workers had complained about the safety of the building and engineers had declared it unsound
      - Supply Chains
        
        Country selection - choice to outsource or not
        
        Countries choose the country with the lowest MF costs
        
        Bangladesh has the lowest labour wages WW - under $40/month
        
        Companies are at ever greater risk of brand damage and must assume greater responsibility at all levels of production
      - TNC Responsibility?
        
        Disney
        
        Of the large companies represented, it left immediately - refused to sign any safety agreements
        
        Relatively small presence - produces 25 of its products in Bangladesh
        
        Pledged to phase out of Bangladesh and other countries with low scores on WB indicators by March 2014
        
        Severely criticised for abandoning responsibility
        
        Could have worked together with other major brands to compel the Bangladeshi government to improve its WB indicators
        
        TNCs have incredible leverage over the garment industry, which makes up for 3/4 of Bangladesh's GDP - shows country's reliance on TNCs
        
        Should only cost companies 10 cents/garment to ensure these factories are safe
        
        Businesses are now held responsible even if failures occur outside their supply chains
        
        Sub-contracting is no longer an excuse - TNCs are the direct employer
        
        They should have checked that the factories offered workers rights
    - - State should have enforced their legal framework
      - Limited economic power, to they should want to protect FDI investment by enforcing workers' rights so that TNCs do not have such responsibilities or reputations e.g. Disney pulled out completely
      - Sub-contracting
        
        TNC employs a company
        
        This company cannot meet demands, so it employs a sub-contractor where workers' rights are poor
        
        So it is not necessarily the fault of the TNC
      - Bangladesh must ensure that its state apparatus works well, or the rights of its people are severely undermined
      - Long-term argument?
        
        Currently the state apparatus is weak and therefore unable to control and take responsibility for the situation
  - - - Goods, ideas and money are able to travel more freely between locations,
    - - Air freight + containerisation
      - Greater advertising
      - Growth of TNCs, inc. offshoring
      - Growth of global brands
      - Advantages
        
        Shared technology e.g. nuclear and renewables
        
        Improved human rights thru campaigning + NGOs
        
        Improved freedom of media, press + speech
      - Disadvantages
        
        Online shopping
        
        Ease of travel e.g. ATMs
        
        Transfers between accounts and countries
    - - Global banks
      - Internet and mobile banking
      - Trade in stocks, bonds etc.
      - Credit cards + easy money services e.g. PayPal and ATMs
      - Loans, mortgages, overdrafts
      - Advantages
        
        Growth of monopolies e.g. Microsoft
        
        Micro loans for the poor
      - Disadvantages
        
        Global credit crunch
        
        Fraud
        
        Debt
        
        Collapse of financial institutions
        
        Collapse of pension funds
    - - Greater passport ownership
      - Visa relaxation
      - Cheap flights
      - TNCs - global division of labour - footloose workers
      - Global business language - English
      - Advantages
        
        Reduced unemployment
        
        Sharing ideas + skills
        
        Brain gain
        
        Cheaper labour + production cost
        
        Spread of knowledge
      - Disadvantages
        
        Reliance on foreign labour
        
        Racial tensions
        
        Economic leakage - remittances sent home
        
        Brain drain
        
        Lack of skills and training amongst home workers
    - - Internet, media
      - Global organisations e.g. WB, IMF
      - TNCs
      - Economic migrants
      - Advantages
        
        Greater choice
        
        Cheaper products
        
        Goods year-round
        
        Reliable availability
      - Disadvantages
        
        Cultural imperialism - ideas are imposed not accepted
        
        Loss of sovereignty
        
        Ideologies not always suitable
        
        Prescribed policies can cause conflict
  - - - Governance above that of the individual state
      - Member states within supranational institutions retain sovereignty
      - Member states are bound to requirements of the supranational body e.g. treaties
        
        they surrender some aspects of sovereignty to comply with the laws of the institution
    - - Trading bloc - economic and political union
      - 28 member states
      - Advantages
        
        Addressing transnational issues
        
        Economic + trade advantages e.g. access to a large European market
      - Disadvantages
        
        States must implement EU laws and regulations even if they did not pass them
        
        State cannot pass laws in the interest of their own state if it conflicts with those of the EU
        
        The 19 members of the Eurozone have additional financial restrictions
        
        Limits sovereignty - forced fishing quotas in Common Fisheries Policy
    - - All 193 sovereign states are members of the General Assembly
      - Conflict with the norms allows the UN to sanction intervention - Articles 41 + 42
      - Intervention applies in cases of
        
        Genocide
        
        War crimes
        
        Crimes against humanity
        
        Ethnic cleansing
      - The international community will intervene in a state without its consent only when that state is allowing violation of human rights to occur or if it commits them itself
  - - - A sovereign state may include more that 1 ethnic group within its territory e.g. S Sudan has 60 - Dinka and Neur are largest
      - A single ethnic group may be partitioned by modern state borders e.g. Kurdistan covers 5 states in SW Asia
- - - - 15 new countries in E Europe and central Asia secession of the USSR
    - - Peace deals after war
      - Extension of territory for access of resources e.g. Ukraine + Russia
      - Fall of ideology + break-up of unions e.g. USSR
      - Empire break-up = countries have self-determination
    - - Sovereignty over populations and physical resources
      - Influences economy and social geography of each area, inc. ethnic groups
      - Global patterns of trade + migration
    - - Claims of India, Pakistan + China in Jammu + Kashmir area in South Asia
    - - Regional trade blocs e.g. EU - recent expansion
      - Global organisations e.g. UN, IMF, WB
    - - Local and federal govs. share governance
      - Union and partially self-governing regions under a central gov.
      - Works best in homogenous states
    - - Has the power to govern itself bc of:
        
        Distinct ethnicity
        
        Religion
        
        Overseas territories
        
        Preservation of TI
      - Scotland
    - - Unified group with/without it sown country
      - Dispersed across many states, of from a native population of a region within a larger state
    - - Some states are unhappy living in states dominated by other, more powerful nations e.g. UK
    - - Function as independent states but without official international recognition e.g. N Cyprus
    - - = hostility between neighbouring nations
      - Armenia + Azerbaijan - military control
    - - Remnants of old colonies
      - Dependent on motherland rather than an independent state
        
        Lack of resources + population
    - - Enclave
        
        Piece of land entirely surrounded by the territory of another state e.g. Monacco
        
        May consist of a state itself, or be a small portion of a larger state
      - Exclave
        
        Portion of a state geographically separated from the main part of that state
  - - - Internal sovereignty
        
        State has exclusive authority within its bounded territory
        
        No other state can intervene in its domestic politics
      - External Sovereignty
        
        A state cannot claim sovereignty - there must be mutual recognition among other sovereign states
        
        Ensures territorial integrity and enables it to enter into international relations with other states
    - - Rocks, soils, minerals and space beneath the surface
      - Agreed area of sea and seabed
      - Agreed air space
  - - - Article 2.4 of the UN Charter
  - - - From moral principles and behaviours that have developed over time
      - Embedded in international law to be upheld by governments and citizens
      - Based on principles set out in Charter of the UN
        
        Understanding of sovereignty and TI
        
        Customary + internationally accepted behaviour of state govs.
        
        State responsibilities of maintain the global system of a sovereign state with bounded territories and protecting their citizens
      - Govs. are expected to put in laws compatible with the UN Charter
      - Norms regarding sovereignty + TI are reinforced by treaties to which member states sign and ratify
    - - Actions of international organisations in resolving conflicts or humanitarian crises arising from challenges to sovereignty + TI
      - Examples:
        
        Economic sanctions
        
        Military intervention authorised by UN
        
        Peacekeeping missions
        
        Humanitarian assistance by Civil Society orgs. e.g. NGOs and aid agencies
      - Circumstances:
        
        State government failing to protect its citizens from violation of human rights
        
        Direct aggression from another state
        
        Civil war from poor governance
        
        Religious fundamentalism/terrorism
        
        TNCs have negative impacts in the countries they invest in
      - Controversial
        
        Principle of sovereignty, promoted by the UN, is undermined by intervention
    - - Global balance of political power and international relations
      - Inequalities in power in states because of:
        
        Wealth
        
        Political strength of government
        
        Level of development
      - Inequalities
      - AC - EDC - LIDC
      - Supranational political and economic organisations exert strong political influences and level of development
      - Geopolitics of intervention:
        
        Reasons why intervention is necessary
        
        Appropriate type of intervention
        
        Political composition of groups of countries and organisations involved
        
        Characteristic features of the country, gov. and people affedted
        
        Potential socio-economic, environmental and political effects - MALI CASE STUDY
- - - - Global migration system
      - Global trade system
      - Supply chains for goods
    - - Bloody elections
      - Paradoxically long periods of dictatorship = further corruption
      - Little control over borders and movement of people, goods + drugs
      - High number of fatalities bc of war/conflict
      - Many refugees
      - Natural resources controlled by other states/TNCs
      - Insurgency/terrorism/secession movements
      - Weak judiciary systems
  - - - Exploitation of natural resources
      - Geographical location
      - Human resources
      - Demographic structure
      - Industrial development
      - Ability to regulate its economy
      - Trade strength
      - Wealth
      - Internal political orgnaisation
      - International relations
      - Government politics
      - Historical events
- - - - Widespread resistance to the reform within the government = stalled reform efforts = backtracking
    - - President Yanukovych fled the country
      - International community began efforts to stabilise its economy
      - March 2014 - IMF assistance package of $17.5 billion
    - - Loss of major portion of its heavy industry in Donbas
      - Economy grew back by 2.3% in 2016
      - Ukraine now trades more with EU than Russia, and tried to gain closer ties to the EU
  - - - Endemic corruption, unpopular government policies, violent demonstration
    - - Serious civil unrest 2013
        
        Yanukovych's government failed to sign the EU Association Agreement on trade and co-operation with EU in favour of closer economic ties with RUssia
      - Crimea annexation 2014
        
        Closely followed by the election of the pro-West Poroshenko government
        
        Military conflict in Donbass region - pro-Russian separatists have been supported by Russia with manpower, weaponry and finance
    - - Some assistance from NATO and OSCE
      - Needs to reform state apparatus
        
        Development of a fair + transparent electoral system
        
        Judicial system needs to be more capable of dealing with smuggling and corruption - more police and armed forces
        
        Improved of health and education systems
        
        Human rights issues - esp. for IDPs from military conflict
        
        Needs to become more energy dependent = reduced energy dependence on Russia
        
        Greater treasury involvement to improve investment climate and restore international confidence in trade
  - - - Therefore moving away from Russia and indirectly caused annexation of Crimea
    - - Ukraine was given Crimea in 1957, and took Crimea with it when it became independent
    - - Low GDP, low disposable income, political instability = low levels of FDI
    - - Germany relies heavily on Russia
      - Russia supplies 40% of Europe's gas
      - Large pipeline from Russia to Europe
  - - - E Ukraine war, Donetz
      - 4 years
      - 10,000 dead
      - One of the largest conflicts in modern history
      - Conflict between Ukrainians and separatists rebels in the Donbass region
      - Families split because of new border - DNR - need special permission to visit
      - New bakery, Marinka
        
        Symbol of hope + comfort
        
        Ukranian side of the front line
        
        Population has laved from 10,000
        
        First new businesses since the war began
      - Demonstration in Kiev sparked this E war
        
        President sacked + Crimea taken over = E War
    - - 1.5 million of the 5.2 million inhabitants of the Lugansk and Donetsk blasts are IDPs
      - 600,000 moved to neighbouring countries - mostly Russia, as residential areas came under fire
      - Evacuees have moved to dormitories in summer camps, disused huts in woods etc.
      - Lack of income, poor quality of shelter, poor access to medical care and food
      - 7000 deaths and 13,900 injuries
      - Debaltseve bombed
        
        Strategically important rail-link for goods from Russia bc it is on te highway linking other rebel strongholds
      - Those who stay sheltered in basements are without power and heating
    - - Heavy fighting at Donetsk airport
      - Loss of power, water and gas in Donbass
      - Industrial plants damaged
      - Forest areas susceptible to fire are more burnt-out than usual
      - Movement of heavy vehicles damages nature reserves
      - Economic sanctions by EU + USA = increased prices and a drop in the value of rouble in Russia
      - NATO has increased its strength in potentially vulnerable Soviet states in the Baltic
- - - - Symbols of nationalism
      - National anthem
      - Created + built a new capital
      - Appointed a new government
    - - State identity
      - No unity identity = no framework for state bilding
      - Was based on its conflict with Sudan (common enmy) - has now lost that need to fight
      - Loss of oil export
      - Ethnic violence - Dinka and Neur
  - - - Sudan put tariffs on oil for it to be transported
      - Exporting oil wasn't economically viable
      - Sudan cut off oil production - could take 6 months to restart
  - - - 2000 new child refugees/day from Sudan
      - Receives 1 million refugees from Sudan
    - - 2012 - Salva Kiir appealed for $4 billion stolen - $60 million returned
      - Ghost employees in government payroll
        
        400,000 ghost officers
        
        11, 000 ghost police
        
        Their salaries fund security elites in the country
      - So donors won't fund = no FDI
    - - Landlocked = unable to export oil
      - 75% of oil production has in the south before secession in 2011
      - 98% of budget was from oil revenues
      - Is the worlds most oil-dependent country + contains Sub-Saharan Africa's 3rd largest oil reserves
      - 2012 - Juba shut-down its 350,000 barrel/day output
        
        Bc of tax on oil from Sudan for exoprt
    - - 1956 - Sudan gained idependence from Anglo-Egyption rule
        
        N was Muslim; S was Christian
        
        British failed to give Sudan enough representation on independence = government was Arab-led
        
        Government went back against their promise for a federal system = 1st civil war (1955-72)
- - - - Secure international peace
      - Eliminate poverty
      - Protect human rights
    - - All member states have representatives on the UN General Assembly
      - Votes on important issues within the UN Charter
      - Uses
        
        Debates
        
        Holds recommendations
        
        Holds UN elections
        
        Adopts the budget
  - - - 5 permanent members in the security council and they have veto powers
        
        China, France, Russian Federation, UK, USA
      - 10 non-permanent members who serve for 2 years
      - Those with veto power will control decision making
- - - - Countries have fought for territory here for centuries
      - Tensions increasing recently
      - Rival countries: China, Vietnam, Phillipines, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei
    - - All the countries have different claims
      - Dispute over territory and sovereignty over oceans
      - Paracels and Spratyls are 2 island chains claimed by the countries
      - The islands have reserves of natural resources around them
      - Little detailed exploration of the sea
        
        So estimates are made from the mineral wealth of the surrounding area
      - Sea is a major shipping route and its fishing grounds supply people across the globe
    - - China has backed claims by island-building and naval ports
        
        USA sent military forces to ensure access to key shipping and other routes; both sides have accused each other of militarising the sea
        
        Claims the largest proportion
      - Vietnam claims that it had actively ruled there since the 17th century
      - Philippines uses its geographical proximity as its main claim
    - - 1974 - China seized the Paracels from Vietnam, killing over 70 Vietnamese troops
      - 1988 - Vietnam lost the Spratlys to China and 60 of their men died