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SUSS SSC 109 Intro to Social Science Study Unit 1 (Define the disciplines…

- - - - Test the hypothesis by operationalising its variables and measuring changes
        in the variables.
      - Evaluate the measured relationship between the variables by comparing with
        the original hypothesis
      - Develop a hypothesis (or hypotheses) about the relationship of one variable to other variables. [Ensure that the hypothesis(es) adequately addresses the problem to be solved and that there are data and resources available to test this hypothesis]
        
        Examples of Hypotheses:
        • ‘Low-interest rates and population growth are the lead causes explaining the increase in property prices.’
        • ‘A high level of mutual trust between citizens and government is the basis of a stable and sustainable country.’
      - Propose theoretical significance of findings, identify factors which might have distorted findings (‘Alternative Factors’); consider if the inquiry brought new ideas/hypotheses to mind
      - Identify topic and variables to study
- - - - Begining of scientific resolution.
        
        The schism between church and science.
        
        Galileo and the heliocentric model vs Church and the geocentric model
      - Origins of the modern scientific method.
        
        Newton and the law of gravity
        
        Francis Bacon introduces the idea of having planned procedures to investigate the causes of natural phenomena.
        
        But there is no cross-application of the scientific method for understanding society yet.
      - Shift in worldview
        
        A shift in the orientation of intellectuals from interior life towards the external social world is evident.
        
        A departure from a worldview that is mystical and predominantly metaphysical and theological to a worldview that is empirically driven.
        
        The impetus to question tradition and authority based on reason/rationality lays the groundwork for further changes.
    - - Emphasis on Critical and Rational Thought
        
        Beginning of the application of science to society. i.e. The belief that the social equivalent of the Natural Laws could be formulated and applied to create the perfect society.
        
        Intense critical questioning of traditional institutions, customs, and morals.
        
        Rational sense legitimises an idea/institution – not tradition or history
    - - Major political upheavals
        
        Revolutions as a result of Enlightenment period and the questioning of traditional social-political order.
        
        American revolutionary victory, the spread of French Revolution ideas, and the rise of Great Britain, a liberal European state, accelerate the spread of Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe.
        
        Political changes emphasising individual freedom and freedom from tradition creates a space in which Science can flourish.
    - - Victory and vindication of science
        
        Scientific method refined and became the accepted method of enquiry.
        
        Engineering application of scientific discoveries lead to an age of tremendous technological advancement.
        
        Creates a sense of living in an Age of Progress
        
        Industrial Revolution is seen as a victory and vindication of Science over
        the medieval-religious mode of thinking
      - Industrialisation and Urbanisation
        This major development created a series of new and pressing social issues such as:
        
        urban overcrowding
        
        health/sanitation, pollution
        
        new social classes and class divisions: urban poverty and wealth divide
        
        exploitation of labourers/workers
        
        public unrest and conflict
        
        psychological problems: anxiety, depression, etc.
    - - Political Revolution: Challenge to traditional political systems opens the door
        to questioning in other areas (like science).
      - Social Revolution: Industrialisation, urbanisation and corresponding social
        problems in 19th Century.
      - Economic Revolution: Rise of modern capitalism, colonisation of Non- European world and its social impact (wealth creation but also exploitation of labourers, increased wealth division, the breakdown of traditional social obligations).
      - Positivism VS Anti positivism
        
        The emergence of social science as an application of natural science techniques to study social issues emerging from the new technological-urban society.
        
        Two Important Early Threads in Social Science Theory
        
        Positivism (Empiricism)
        
        Developed by Auguste Comte
        
        Positivism asserts that authentic knowledge of society can only be found and
        based on empirical evidence and, especially, statistics
        
        Positivists sought to discover Universal Laws applicable to all societies throughout time through empirical evidence.
        
        Culture/history of a people/nation & Subjective
        opinion/experience is unimportant
        
        e.g. stock analysis
        
        Most social science research today blends positivist and anti-positivist approaches. The modern ‘quantitative’ (statistics-based) approach is the successor of positivism, while the ‘qualitative’ (observational and reasons based) approach is the successor of antipositivism.
        
        Anti-Positivism
        
        Emerged as a response to positivism.
        
        Argued that positivists overemphasised empirical and statistical
        evidence at the expense of other essential qualitative aspects of human experience – in particular, a country’s or people’s distinctive history and
        culture.
        
        Focus on human cultural norms, values, history, symbols and social processes viewed from the subjective perspective
        
        Study each social study on its own terms without attempting a generalisation
  - - - Macro theory approach
        
        Functionalist Theory approach
        
        This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness/integration of social life in achieving social stability
        
        Slow social change is desirable, but rapid social change threatens social order.
        
        Followers of the functionalist theory approach are hesitant to make social judgments because all aspects of society have certain functions.
        
        Terms to note:
        
        Manifest function (The core intended function/ consequences)
        
        Latent function (the unintended or hidden consequences)
        
        Dysfuntion (The change which results ina disruption of social systems)
        
        i.e. Durkheim
        
        Conflict Theory approach
        
        Followers of this approach see social behaviour in terms of conflict and tension among competing groups or classes (inequality).
        
        society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited resources. It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity.
        
        According to conflict theory, those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means possible, chiefly by suppressing the poor and powerless. A basic premise of conflict theory is that individuals and groups within a society work to maximize their own benefits.
        
        i.e karl marx
      - Micro Theory approach
        
        Exchange Theory approach
        
        The exchange theory approach emphasizes the voluntary exchanges of individuals' as reflecting individual choices.
        
        In doing so, they seek to maximize the benefits they gain from the interaction and to reduce the disadvantages
        
        Thus societal structure is a reflection of individual desires.
        
        i.e Jeremy Bentham, Adam Smith
        
        Symbolic interaction Theory approach
        
        In this approach, people do not merely learn the roles that society has set out for them; instead, they construct these roles as they interact.
        
        Through social interactions, they “negotiate” their definitions of the situations in which they find themselves and socially construct the reality of these situations.
        
        In so doing, they rely heavily on symbols such as words and gestures to reach a shared understanding of their interaction.
        
        Followers of this approach see reality as reflecting less what people do and more what they think and feel. Their motives and perceptions, rather than actions, are emphasized.
        
        i.e. Herbert Blumer
    - - Case method
      - Comparative and cross-cultural method
      - Historical method
- - - - Behavioural Psychology
        
        studies the way people and animals respond to aexternal stimulus (e.g., pleasure, pain, fear, love), and how many habits and behaviours (including culture) are formed and shaped in this interaction. Studies and explains the socialisation process.
      - Social Psychology
        
        studies human behaviour in groups and how these influence an individual’s behaviour and the development of his/her belief system.
        
        Also studies group psychology, and the nature and dynamics of groups – e.g., group hierarchies how these develop, how groups are formed, what keeps them together, etc
      - Biological Psychology
        
        studies how human behaviour is related to (biological) physical chemical-electrical
        processes in the mind and the nervous system
  - - - Key Questions Micro-economist:
        
        How has the introduction of hypermarts altered spending and lifestyle patterns among Singaporeans?
        
        How does ‘costs of living’ influence family planning, consumption patterns, and other economic behaviour?
        
        How have small-medium enterprises in Singapore’s shipping industry adapted to increasing overseas competition?
    - - Key questions Macro-economist:
        
        How might an increase in Singapore’s currency exchange rates impact our gross domestic product (GDP)?
        
        How might an economic slowdown in China impact Singapore’s economic growth?
        
        How would the introduction of tighter banking regulation in Western countries impact Singapore’s financial industry?
  - - - Quali methods vs quanti method
        
        Cultural Anthropology is similar in content to Sociology, but the methods employed are different.
        
        It relies primarily on fieldwork and direct observation (qualitative data), whereas sociologists often rely primarily on statistical data (quantitative data) supported by fieldwork.
        
        Cultural anthropologists are noted for their research method, called ethnography, which relies on systematic hands-on field research
      - Key Questions an Anthropologist Might Ask:
        
        What is human nature? Is there such as a thing as a universal human nature?
        
        What is the interrelationship between all the different aspects of a society? How do these fit together holistically? (i.e., what is the culture of a society like?)
        
        What are the similarities and differences between cultures? What can this tell us about mankind?
    - - Cultural Anthropology:
        
        The study of human culture such as kinship, linguistics, archaeology and material artifacts (e.g., tools and homes), economy, music, art, folklore/mythology, religion, and sub-cultures.
      - Physical Anthropology:
        
        The study of human biological origins, which has moved into the study of genetic, evolutionary studies
        
        e.g., when did humans begin to walk and use fire? From where did humans originate? Why are there different races of humans and physical traits? This discipline is closer to a natural science than a social science.