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SUSS PSY 107 PSYCHOLOGY STUDY UNIT 3 (Memory (The 3 tasks of memory…

- - - - Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model
        
        The 3 Stages of memory (From stimuli to Long term)
        
        2. STM or working memory
        
        In a traditional Model, Short-term memory (Or STM) was thought to be a temporary holding area for information with extremely limited capacity and operative over a few seconds. Through the process of retrieval and encoding, information is stored in LTM
        
        Baddeley expanded this and form the working memory model.Baddeley explains how different information underwent different encoding processes
        
        Structure and Biological basis
        
        Involves the hippocampus and frontal lobe.
        
        Consist of the Central executive, Phonological loop, Sketchpad, Episodic buffer
        
        Central executive
        
        An information 'Exchange house' for working memory
        
        Directs your attention to important input from both sensory memory and long-term memory and interfaces with the brain’s conscious response system.
        
        Sketchpad Associated with encoding visual images mental representations of objects in space.
        
        Phonological Loop Associated with encoding acoustics
        
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        Episodic Buffer
        
        The working memory's 'organiser'
        
        Associated with encoding events.
        
        Bind the various pieces of information in working memory into a coherent episode.
        
        Duration and capacity
        
        About 20 seconds unless repeatedly rehearsed
        
        7±2chunks
        
        Chunking
        Organising pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks)—a process that frees up space in working memory.
        
        Rehearsal
        
        Maintenance rehearsal A working-memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. Maintenance rehearsal involves no active elaboration.
        
        Elaborative rehearsal A working-memory process in which information is consciously reviewed and actively related to information already in LTM.
        
        3. long-term memory (LTM) The third of three memory stages, with the largest capacity and longest duration; LTM stores material organized according to meaning
        
        Structure and Biological basis
        
        Procedural memory and declarative memory (further subdivided into semantic and episodic memory)
        
        Involves various parts of the cerebral cortex
        
        Declarative Memory
        A division of LTM that stores explicit information; also known as fact memory.
        
        Can be Implicit Memories
        
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        Can be Explicit Memories
        
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        Often Explicit Memories
        
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        Often Implicit Memories
        
        Procedural Memory
        
        A division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done.
        
        i.e. Riding a bike
        
        Duration and capacity Unlimited
        
        1. Sensory memory
        The first of three memory stages, preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli
        
        Stimuli and Sensory memory
        
        Visual stimulation - Iconic memory
        
        Auditory stimulation - Echoic memory
        
        Tactile stimulation - Tactile sensory memory (touch)
        
        Olfactory stimulation - Olfactory sensory memory (smell)
        
        Gustatory stimulation - Gustatory sensory memory
        
        Duration
        250 - 400 msec
        
        Structure and Biological basis
        
        Sensory Pathways
        
        A separate sensory register for each sense
        
        Brief Overview
        
        A.K.A the three-stage model, in this model memory is generally thought to be divided into three stages of processing. Everything that eventually goes into long-term storage must first be processed by sensory memory and working memory.
    - - Baddeley’s (1992) Working Memory model
        
        An extension of the short-term memory stage
        
        Refer to 'Stage 2' of the 3 stage memory process
  - - - Rehearsal
        
        Shallow Processing - Maintenance rehearsal A working-memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. Maintenance rehearsal involves no active elaboration.
        
        Deep Processing - Elaborative rehearsal A working-memory process in which information is consciously reviewed and actively related to information already in LTM.
    - - Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness
        
        Retrieving Implicit Memories by Priming
        
        A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory.
      - Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
        
        Retrieving Explicit Memories
        
        Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information
        
        Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented
  - - - Proactive interference
        Involves the interference of older information stored in memory with
        retrieval of new information.
        (i.e. You forget your new locker combi because you keep dialling your old locker combi)
      - Retroactive interference Involves newer
        information interfering with the retrieval of older information.
        (i.e. You forgot your secondary school mobile number because you've had multiple mobile numbers since then)
      - Serial position effect A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented. Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last. There are three types of neurons.
    - - Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve
        
        A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables.
        
        The typical forgetting curve is steep at first and platues as time goes on.
      - Causes of Forgetting in the Memory System
        
        Short-term memory - fading due to inattention,
        interference
        
        Long-term memory - retrieval failure, interference,
        fading due to disuse
        
        Sensory memory - spontaneous decay, masking
    - - Blocking: Access Problem or failure to retrieve memory. Attributed to interference.
      - Suggestibility: External Cues distort Memories
      - Absent-Mindedness: Lapses of Attention/ Failure to properly encode
      - Bias: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions
        Distort Memories
      - Transience/ Decay: Fading Memories
      - Misattribution: Memories in the Wrong
        Contex
      - Persistence A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind.
- - - - intelligence quotient (IQ)
        
        Measuring IQ
        
        Initially, IQ was measured using the following equation: IQ=(MA/CA)*100
        
        MA: average age at which individuals achieve
        a particular score
        
        CA: number of years since birth (age)
        
        However, an inherent problem in calculating IQ scores became apparent as soon as psychologists began to use their formula with adults.
        
        Mental age scores usually Plateau as people develop.
        
        As such adults appear to have mental retardation
        
        The solution was to calculate IQs on distribution curve
        
        Intelligence is assumed to be spread through the population in varying degrees so that only a few people fall into the high or low ranges, while most cluster around a central average.
        
        Controversies surrounding IQ assesment
    - - Types of Test
        
        Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC),
        
        Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
        
        Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS),
  - - - Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
        
        general intelligence can be broken down into two relatively independent components
        
        Crystallised intelligence
        The knowledge a person has acquired, plus the ability to access that knowledge
        
        Fluid intelligence
        The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.
      - Spearman’s G Factor
        
        Spearman suggested a single general intelligence factor at work behind all our mental activity.
        
        Labels it the 'G -factor'
    - - Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
        
        Analytical
        Intelligence
        
        Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers
        
        Creative
        Intelligence
        
        A form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts, involves insight and creativity
        
        Practical
        Intelligence
        
        also called contextual
        intelligence
        
        Ability to cope with the environment, “street smarts”
        
        Recently, Sternberg and his colleagues (2003) put forth an additional element of intelligence—namely, wisdom alluding to the use of one’s intelligence toward a common good rather than a selfish pursuit.
      - Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
        
        Musical intelligence. The ability to perform, compose, and appreciate musical patterns, including patterns of rhythms and pitches
        
        Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. The ability for controlled movement and coordination, such as that needed by an athlete or a surgeon
        
        Spatial intelligence. The ability to form and manipulate mental images of objects and to think about their relationships in space
        
        Naturalistic intelligence. The ability to classify living things as members of diverse groups (e.g., dogs, petunias, bacteria) and recognize subtle changes in one’s environment
        
        Logical-mathematical intelligence. Also measured on most IQ tests with analogies, math problems, and logic problems
        
        Interpersonal intelligence. The ability to understand other people’s intentions, emo- tions, motives, and actions, as well as to work effectively with others
        
        Linguistic intelligence. Often measured on traditional IQ tests by vocabulary tests and tests of reading comprehension
        
        Intrapersonal intelligence. The ability to know oneself, to develop a satisfactory sense of identity, and to regulate one’s life
  - - - Herediterian argument. Research with twins and adopted children shows genetic influences on a wide range of attributes, including intelligence
      - Environmental argument
        Evidence Shows
        
        A stimulating environment was strongly associated with language ability but not with memory
        
        A nurturing environment was associated with memory but not with language ability.
  - - - invokes a mental prototype,i.e. An ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category.
        
        For example To determine whether an object is a bird or not, you mentally compare it to your bird prototype—and the closer it matches, the quicker you can make your decision.
  - - - Effectively Identify problem and select strategy and avoid biases
      - Selecting a strategy
        
        Algorithms
        Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied.
        
        Heuristics
        Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution.
        
        Searching for analogies
        
        Breaking a big problem into smaller problems
        
        Working backward
      - Causes of poor judgement and decision making
        
        Anchoring Bias
        Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on information appearing at the beginning of the problem
        
        Representativeness Bias
        Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once something is categorized, it shares all features of other members in that category
        
        Hindsight Bias
        Tendency, after learning about an event, to believe that one could have predicted the event in advance
        
        Availability Bias
        Faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind
        
        Confirmation Bias
        Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit our opinions, and seeking information with which we agree.
        
        Tyranny of choice
        Too many choices can interfere with effective decision making
    - - Algorithms are typical ways of programming computers.
      - A chess program called Deep Blue was programmed using heuristics which
        employs the same type of decision-making processes as humans do.