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Behaviors and Ecology (Population Ecology (The Scope of Ecological…

- - - - Disease
      - Predation
      - Competition for Resources
      - Territoriality
      - Intrinsic Factors
      - Toxic Wastes
    - - Environment, ie. weather and climate
      - Human Activities
      - Natural Disasters
- - - - Examples include babies reaching out to grab their mothers, sea turtles crawling out from their to the sea, etc.
      - "Day one" genetically programmed thinking; a result of evolutionary thinking
    - - "Until completion" behavior; preforming a certain task until it is "finished"
      - Examples include birds pulling back eggs into their nest while sitting on them if they are removed, courtship and aggression of male stickleback fish during the mating season, etc.
    - - What happens during a "critical period" of a lifetime
      - Examples include geese imprinting their mother and following her as they travel
    - - Associating a stimulus with a response or an effect
      - Examples include a dog becoming excited when its owner looks like he's about to go outside for a walk, or associating a ringing bell with food, etc.
    - - Learned behavior through a trial and error method
      - Examples include training an animal by using food as a reward for good behavior, scientific experiments, etc.
    - - A decrease in response of a repeated stimulus over time; learning to "tolerate a presence"
      - Examples include dogs "getting used to" neighbors or family members and no longer barking at them
    - - High-level problem solving using past experiences and reasoning. Does not involve trial and error; instead, an animal thinks through a new solution to a problem similar to one they've encountered before.
      - Examples include the use of tools; gorillas have been observed using branches as measuring sticks to test the depth of water before wading through it. Orangutans also use small sticks as forks to get at edible seeds inside prickly fruits without being hurt
    - - One organisms watching another and learning how to do a task or solve a problem by mimicking their behavior
      - Examples include an infant child learning how to make facial expressions by watching its parents, a toddler learning how to walk and talk by observing other people, etc.
- - - - Temperature: Hot all year around; averages 25-29°C with little variation.
      - Dominant Organisms: millions of different species of arthropods. High in animal diversity. Includes amphibians, birds, reptiles, mammals, and arthropods all well-adapted to fit the vertically-layered environment.
      - Precipitation: Tropical rain forest have relatively constant rain (200-400 cm a year), while tropical dry forests have highly seasonal rain (150-200 cm a year)
      - Distribution: Found along the equator
    - - Distribution: Found in certain equatorial regions
      - Precipitation: Seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm per year. Long dry seasons.
      - Temperature: Warm year-round; averaging 24-29°C. Somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests.
      - Dominant Organisms: Large herbivores like wildebeests and zebras, and predators such as lions and hyenas all roam the land. Dominant herbivores are insects like termites.
    - - Precipitation: Highly seasonal; rainy winters and dry summers. Yearly precipitation usually around 30-50 cm.
      - Temperature: Cool spring, fall, and winters, with average temperatures of 10°-12°C. Hot summers; daytime maximum temperature can exceed 40°C
      - Dominant Organisms: deer and goats that feed on twigs and woody plants. Many small animals like birds, insects, and reptiles.
      - Distribution: Found in mid-latitude coastal regions
    - - Precipitation: Dry; precipitation is low, generally less than 30 cm per year
      - Distribution: Found in bands near 30° north and south
      - Temperature: Varies with season, location, and time of day. Cold air deserts may reach temperatures below -30°C and hot air deserts may reach temperatures above 50°C.
      - Dominant Organisms: Snakes and lizards, ants, scorpions, birds, and seed-eating rodents. Many species are nocturnal; most animals generally have some adaption to water conservation. Most plants exhibit C4 or CAM photosynthesis.
    - - Distribution: Found in various regions; the veldtz of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary the steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies of North America
      - Precipitation: Highly seasonal; relatively dry winters and wet summers. Drought is common. Annual precipitation generally between 30-100 cm.
      - Temperature: Cold winters (-10°C) and hot summers (30°C).
      - Dominant Organisms: Mammals such as bison and horses. Many burrowing animals such as rodents and prairie dogs.
    - - Distribution: Extends in a band across northern North America (including much of Canada) and Eurasia. Largest terrestrial biome on Earth.
      - Precipitation: Generally between 30-70 cm a year; periodical droughts are common. Some forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest may receive over 300 cm of rain annually.
      - Temperature: Generally cold winters and warm to hot summers. Temperatures range from -50°C in winter to 20°C in summer.
      - Dominant Organisms: Mammals such as moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers. High diversity in animal kingdom. Many different types of insects.
    - - Distribution: Found in the mid-altitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
      - Precipitation: Ranges from 70-200 cm annually. Significant amounts of rain during all seasons.
      - Temperature: Winter temperatures average 0°C; summers are hot and humid, with temperatures up to 35°C.
      - Dominant Organisms: Many mammals that hibernate in the winter; birds migrate to warmer climates.
    - - Precipitation: Averages between 20 to 60 cm annually in the arctic. Precipitation can exceed 100 cm in the alpines.
      - Temperature: Very cold winters; averages in some areas below -30°C. Summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C.
      - Distribution: Covers expansive areas of the Arctic; makes up about one-fifth of Earth's land surface.
      - Dominant Organisms: Large grazing musk oxen. Bears, wolves, and foxes dominate the land.
  - - - Physical Characteristics: Transition area between a river and sea.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Salinity varies spatially; salt concentrations increase closer to seawater. Also varies with tides. High in nutrients from the river
    - - Physical Characteristics: Periodically submerged and exposed by tides. Changes in tides limit distributions of many organisms.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Oxygen and nutrient levels generally high and are renewed as the tides turn
    - - Physical Characteristics: Typically high speed and volume of flow. Water downstream is generally warmer and more turbid due to suspended sediment. Stratified into vertical zones. Leads to lakes.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Salt and nutrient concentrations increase downstream. Headwaters generally are more rich in oxygen than downstream water.
    - - Physical Characteristics: Vast realm of open blue water; the sea. Extends to great depths.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Oxygen levels are high, while nutrient concentrations are usually lower than in coastal waters.
    - - Physical Characteristics: Inundated by water at least some of the time; supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil, like moss. Often flooded.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Both water and soils are periodically low in dissolved oxygen. High capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and pollutants.
    - - Physical Characteristics:Formed from calcium carbonate skeletons of corals. Sensitive to temperatures below 20°C and above 30°C. Harbor incredible amounts of diverse wildlife.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Requires very high oxygen levels
    - - Physical Characteristics: Standing body of water; range from a few square meters of area to thousands of square kilometers
      - Chemical Characteristics: Varies greatly among lakes and with seasons; oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and oxygen-rich; eutrophic lakes are nutrient rich and often have low oxygen content if covered with ice
    - - Physical Characteristics: The very bottom of the ocean; the seafloor. Receives no sunlight. Very cold (around 3°C) with incredibly high pressures.
      - Chemical Characteristics: Oxygen concentrations are usually able to support life. High salinity.
  - - - "Having distinct seasons in the year"
      - Due to the tilt of the Earth (23.5 degrees)
    - - Counter clockwise in the South Hemisphere
      - Clockwise in the North Hemisphere
    - - A region of land with rainfall due to a nearby mountain range blocking rain-bearing winds from passing through
      - Less moisture reaches the leeward side of the mountain, so very little to no vegetation can grow there