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language + gender (pamela fishman: interaction the work women do…
language + gender
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janet holmes (diversity)
interested in the extent to which a linguistic form such as tag questions could be linked to an extra-linguistic factor such as tentativeness
holmes argues that tag questions are not always a marker of uncertainty - these linguistic features may be interpreted in different ways depending on context
such tags can be described as 'speaker-orientated' - since they ask the addressee to confirm the speaker's proposition
tags who primary function is affective express the speaker's attitude to the addressee (and are therefore addressee-orientated)
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robin lakoff
created women's language that reinforced women's subordinate status in the patriarchal society. claims that women were more polite
women would use more tag questions. a way of seeking approval and confirmation. women also used a rising intonation in declarative statements + implemented hedging
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jennifer coats - gossip
methodology: recorded group of friends over a period of time. (women) all-women conversations, like most informal interactions between equals, has as its chief goal the maintenance of good social relationships
formal features: 4 aspects: topic development | minimal responses | simultaneous speech | epistemic modality
topic development: suggests females work together in interactions. jointly negotiate. 2. minimal responses 2 different factors of use (mentioned earlier). 3.simultaneous speech - acts as a collaborative device and shows enthusiasm in the conversation + development. 4. epistemic modality - protecting faces.
marjorie goodwin: girls and boys use different linguistic means to express directives in same-sex groups. women can use forceful directives in other contexts - linguistic forms represent social organisation of groups.
marian engle: study of language of parents when playing with their children - fathers give directions. mothers view an interaction as a learning opportunity
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