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Immune System (Innate immunity (plants (dead spots on a leaf (plant seals…

- - - - plant seals off the pathogen and kills the cells in that area
      - prevents the spread of disease to the rest of the plant
  - - - phagocytic cells
        
        neutrophils, circulate in the blood and are attracted by signals from infected tissues and then engulf and destroy infecting pathogens
        
        macrophages, large phagocytic cells
      - natural killer cells circulate through the body and detect an array of surface proteins characteristic of virus infected an cancerous cells
        
        release chemicals that lead to cell death (apoptosis)
        
        inhibits the spread of the virus or cancer
      - toll-like receptors (TLRs) bind to the fragments of molecules on pathogens
        
        recognition helps trigger an immune response
        
        TLRs improve the efficiency of phagocytosis
      - many cellular defenses involve the lymphatic system
        
        macrophages are found in the lymph nodes
      - interferons, proteins that provide innate defense by interfering with viral infections
        
        limit cell-to-cell spread
        
        some white blood cells secrete interferon that activates macrophages
        
        virus infected body cells secrete interferon that causes nearby cells to produce substances that inhibit viral reproduction
    - - lots of chemical signals sent out
      - macrophages and nuetrophils discharge signaling molecules call cytokines, some of which promote blood flow to the site
      - defense triggered by physical injury of infection of tissue involving the release of substances that promote swelling, enhance filtration of white blood cells, and aid in tissue repair and destruction of pathogens
      - mast cells found in connective tissue release histamine
        
        histamine triggers the nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable increasing redness and local blood supply
    - - lysozyme in bodily fluids destroy cell walls of pathogens
        
        tears
        
        saliva
        
        mucus secretions
      - stomach provides an acidic environment kills microbes before pathogens can enter the intestines
      - include skin and mucus membranes
        
        purpose of mucus is to trap pathogens or particles
      - oil and sweat glands on the skin prevent bacterial growth
  - - - double stranded viral RNA
      - components of bacterial and fungal cell walls
    - - many release antimicrobial peptides that inactivate or kill bacteria or fungi
- - - - clonal selections, B cells form clones in response to a specific antigen to amplify the response the cells can have
        
        one clone forms a plasma cell that produces antibodies to fight the antigen
        
        one clone forms a memory cell that is long lasting and has receptors for the antigen
      - primary immune response
        
        body is first exposed to a foreign antigen and a B cell is activated, producing plasma cells that make antibodies against the specific antigen
      - activation begins when an antigen binds to a B cell receptor
        
        enhanced by cytokines, small proteins that regulate the function of other cells
      - secondary immune response
        
        happens when the same antigen invades the body at another time; faster and greater magnitude
  - - - activation involves T cell receptors binding to antigens displayed by antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
        
        pathogen enters host cell, snzymes inside cell cleave the foreign molecules into amaller peptides that can be combines with host proteins and moved to the cell surface
      - T cells bind to and lyse infected cells and cancer cells
  - - - T cells, mature in the thymus
      - B cells, mature in the bone marrow
    - - recognition occurs when an antigen binds to a B or T cell receptor
    - - pathogen specific recognition
- - - - mucus
      - tears
      - saliva
    - - digestive tract
      - airway
  - - - immune cells produce receptor molecules from foreign cells or viruses and activate defense
        
        two types of molecular recognition
        
        innate immunity
        
        adaptive immunity