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7th Grade Science (Genetics (Traits (Punnett squares (A punnett square is…

- - - - A punnett square is a tool to predict the genes of a offspring form 2 known parents. To set up a punnett square you put both of the parents alleles on the sides, One alle in front of every box. Then you drop the letters on top into each of the 4 boxes , then move the side letters into the 4 boxes. The order really does not matter but the capital letter (If there is one) is normally put first. Then you determine the probability of each outcome. For example if you cross 2 heterozygous for eyes (brown being capital and blue being lowercase) the results will be EE, Ee, Ee, and ee. WHich means there is a 75% chance that the phenotype will be brown and only a 25% chance the phenotype will be blue. But there is a 50%b chance that the child will be a carrier for the blue eye trait but it is just not expresses.
  - - - Chromosomes
        
        A person has 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs. Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of your cells. They are what code you to have certain features. Half of your chromosomes are given to you by your mother and the other half your father. Your gender relies on your genes or chromosomes. If you're female that means you have 46 X chromosomes. If you're male you have 45 full chromosomes and a Y chromosome. In the DNA of the chromosomes are genes. Genes are a part of DNA that determines a certain trait. You actually have 2 genes per trait. But sometimes only one gene is shown. That is because some genes are stronger than others. Your parents each have 2 genes per trait as well but they only pass along one gene per trait. For example, if both your parents have brown hair but are carriers for blond hair you have a 25% chance of having blond hair.
        
        Asexual reproduction is when reproduction only requires 1 parent and the offspring are exact replicas as the parent. Organisms that reproduce asexually do not have much diversity because they are just a clone of the first. There are 4 methods of asexual reproduction. These methods are binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. SIngle celled organisms which use asexual reproduction usually do so by splitting in half, this is called binary fission. Budding is when the offspring grows out of the parent. For example yeasts, the offspring grows on the parent. Fragmentation is when the parent breaks into distinct pieces each of which grows into an offspring. Some plants are grown by planting cuts of the plants. Many plants are very advanced in their method of reproduction, offspring can be created by runners, bulbs, rhizomes, or tubers. Parthenogenesis is when females create eggs that develop without needing fertilization. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some invertebrates, along with several fish, amphibians, and reptiles and sometimes in plants. There is no known mammal that uses parthenogenesis.
        
        Sexual reproduction is when it requires two parents, a male and female, egg and a sperm. Some methods of sexual reproduction are pollination, external fertilization, internal fertilization. Pollen is produced by the male organs of the flower - anther. Pollination occurs when the pollen is transferred from the anthers to the female organs by animals or wind. The female stigma is receptive to the pollen grain, the pollen produces a pollen tube which is when it grows through the tissue of the female to the egg where the fertilization takes place by the sperm nucleus. External fertilization is another type. This requires a medium such as water. The sperm cells usually swim towards the egg. This type of reproduction usually occurs in fish and amphibians. The females lay the eggs in the water and the man squirts the sperm in the general area. Internal reproduction occurs within the female. This type of reproduction usually occurs in mammals, birds, insects, and reptiles. Mammals have live birth (with the exception of the duck-billed platypus and the echidna). Whereas Birds, reptiles, and insects lay eggs. Sexual reproduction creates a greater genetic diversity within a species than asexual reproduction. Also, this variation improves the chance that a species will adapt to his environment and survive.
  - - - Meiosis- The purpose of meiosis to form haploid gametes. Meiosis is a reproductive type of cell division, it results in cells with fewer chromosomes. The process of meiosis is meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I starts with the copying of chromosomes and their condensation into compaction into condense form (just like in meiosis). However the metaphase in meiosis I is different, instead of lining up in single file, the bivalent chromosomes line up in pairs. These groups are called homologous chromosomes, are what separate during the anaphase of meiosis. If you look at the anaphase of meiosis I in nematodes, the result is two bivalent chromosomes rather than two groups of four monovalent ones. This difference in chromosome number in the post-anaphase grouping is really the one big difference between mitosis and meiosis. Membranes form around the two groups, during telophase, and then the cell splits down the middle creating two non-clones. Each clone has half the number of chromosomes as the initial. In Meiosis II it applies the process of mitosis to the two cells created by meiosis I. Since the chromosomes are already in benevolent form, interphase is skipped. The result is four cells, called gametes, each with two monovalent chromosomes. Meiosis only occurs in animals plants and fungi
        
        Mitosis-
        
        Meiosis-
- - - - There are many different types of clouds. There is cirrocumulus, cirrus,and cirrostratus (these clouds are very high with the occasional cumulonimbus). Then Nimbostratus, altocumulus and altostratus are at a medium height. Finally there are cumulus, and stratocumulus at the lowest. Each cloud has different characteristics. Cirrus clouds are wispy and made of ice crystals and does not precipitate. Cumulonimbus clouds are storm clouds and can bring thunderstorms and blizzards, they are typically dark grey and large. Cumulus clouds are the white and puffy clouds you see in the sky and they can precipitate once they get enough water. Stratus clouds are like a big gray blanket stretched over the sky. They cover the whole sky (well ar far as you can see) and are actually pretty thin. They can precipitate but not much they typically just make a light drizzle.
        
        Global warming is the steady increase of earth's overall temperature. Normally sunlight enters earth atmosphere hits the ground then most of it bounces back. But due to global warming gases, some of it is absorbed by the atmosphere warming the earth. Now, this is good because without global warming holding some heat in we would all literally freeze to death during the night. Some global warming is good but too much has dreadful results. Now there are so many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere because of most factories and cars and such that the atmosphere is absorbing to much solar radiation and that is causing the atmosphere to constantly heat up.
        
        There are 4 types of air masses Maritime tropical, Maritime polar, Continental tropical and Continental polar. A Maritime tropical air mass is a warm humid air mass. They form over oceans near the tropics. They form over the gulf of mexico and the Atlantic. In the summer maritime tropical air masses bring hot humid weather. In the winter Maritime tropical can bring heavy rain of snow.
        
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        A Maritime polar is a cool humid air mass. They form over the cold North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. These air masses affect the west coast more than the east coast. In the summer these air masses bring fog rain and cool temperatures to the west coast. During the winter these air masses bring cold humid weather
        
        Continental tropical air masses are hot and dry air masses. They form over southwest and northern Mexico in summer. These air masses cover a smaller area then the rest of the types of air masses. Continental air masses bring hot dry weather to the south.
        
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        There are 4 types of fronts. Cold fronts, Warm fronts, Stationary front and Occluded front
        
        When air masses meet is a front, and when they collide usually causes storms and changes in the weather. Fronts can be 15 to 200 kilometers wide and and can be 10 kilometers high.
        
        Cold fronts are when a fast-moving cold air mass collides with a slow-moving warm air mass. Since the cold air is denser than the warm air it slides under the warm air mass. Also, warm air can more water than cold air and if the warm air of the cold front is humid heavy rain of snow can fall. Cold fronts move quickly so they change the weather and after a cold front leaves cool dry air moves in.
        
        A warm front happens when a warm air mass replaces a cold air mass at ground level. If the warm air has lots of humidity rain and a light rain might fall along the front. But if the warm air is dry scattered clouds might form. After a warm front passes through the weather is most likely going to be warm and humid. Warm fronts that happen in the winter bring snow.
        
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- - - - Stratosphere- The stratosphere is the second layer of earth's atmosphere. The stratosphere starts at around 10 km above the ground in middle latitudes. The top of the stratosphere is at about 50 km. Ozone is an unusual type of oxygen molecule that has 3 oxygen molecules attached together it is common in the stratosphere, this heats the stratosphere as ozone absorbs energy from ultraviolet solar radiation from the sun.In the stratosphere, there is an ozone layer. This is where the majority of earth's ozone exists. Sadly because of ozone-depleting aerosols, the ozone layer is getting thinner and thinner and there are holes in it over some places. This is not good because it lets dangerous ultraviolet solar radiation through to the earth. Temperatures rise as you go up in the stratosphere. This is the opposite of the troposphere. Because of temperature stratification, there is little convection and mixing in the stratosphere so the layers of air are quite stable. That is why planes typically fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid the turbulence of the troposphere. The jet stream flows between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
        
        Mesosphere- The layer above the stratosphere is called the Mesosphere. It extends to about 85 km above our planet. Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Like the troposphere and unlike the stratosphere in the mesosphere temperatures get colder as you rise up. The coldest place in earth's atmosphere around -90° C is the top of the mesosphere. The air in the mesosphere is to thin to breathe. The air pressure at the bottom is less than 1% of the pressure at sea level. Then as you go up in the mesosphere the air pressure goes down.
        
        Thermosphere- The layer of rare air that is above the mesosphere is the thermosphere. In the thermosphere, high-energy X-waves and UV radiation from the sun are absorbed in the thermosphere, and that raises the temperature of the thermosphere to 100 or 1000 of degrees. However, if there was a human in the thermosphere the air is so thin there it would feel freezing cold. In many ways, the thermosphere is more like outer space. There are lots of satellites that orbit earth within the thermosphere. How high and where the top of the thermosphere varies on the amount of radiation the sun is emitting. The top of the thermosphere can be found in between 500 and 1000 km above the ground. As you go up in the thermosphere temperatures rise. Temperatures in the top of the thermosphere can range from about 500°C and 2000°C. Also, the aurora borealis or northern lights occur in the thermosphere. The thermosphere is comprised of about 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen.
        
        Exosphere- Some people consider the thermosphere as the uppermost layer of the atmosphere, others consider the exosphere to be the final layer of earth's atmosphere. Since it is the closest layer to space the air there is very very very very very thin. Making this layer more space like than the thermosphere. In fact the exosphere is "leaking" out of earths atmosphere. There is no clear-cut boundary between the exosphere and space it just fades away into space. Different definitions place the exosphere somewhere between 100,000km and 190,000 above the surface of the earth. That latter value is about halfway to the moon.
- - - - Lungs: Inhales air and exhales carbon dioxide
        
        Brain: The control center of the body that controls the whole body.
        
        Bones: Hard things that support your body and help with movement as well as create blood cells
        
        Stomach: The stomach is an organ which the food is broken down after coming down the esophagus through the valve called the esophageal sphincter. Inside the stomach the food is digested by acid and enzymes which are secreted by the stomach. The stomach is lined with with ridges of muscle tissue that are called rugae. The muscles of the stomach periodically contract, causing the food to churn which enhances digestion.
        
        Liver: The liver is an large organ that sits on the right side of the stomach. The liver weighs 3lbs and is an dark reddish color and feels rubbery to the touch. Most of the time you can't feel the liver because it is protected by the rib cage. The liver has 2 main sections called the right and left lobes. The gallbladder sits under the liver, along with parts of the pancreas and intestines. Along with the liver these organs work together to digest, absorb, and process foods. The main function of the liver is to filter the blood coming from the digestive tract before passing to the rest of the body.
        
        Small intestine: The small intestines job is to break down food and absorb the nutrients.
        
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- - - - Animals are made up of lots of animal cells. Animal cells are round cells surrounded by a cell membrane. Animal cells are Eukaryotic. Unlike plant cells, they don't have chloroplasts or a cell wall.
      - The animal cell is made up of:
        
        Mitochondria: The part of the cell that produces energy.
        
        Nucleus: Contains DNA of the cells and controls the functions of the cells.
        
        Cell membrane: The flexible structure found on the outside of both plant and animal cells that controls what comes and goes from the cell.
        
        Vacuole: A organelle filled with water to help the cell.
        
        Lysosome: A organelle containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.
        
        Cytoplasm: The jelly like fluid inside a cell made up of mostly water and salt.
        
        Golgi complex: Gathers simple molecules and combines them to make complex molecules.
    - - Plant cells are the cells that make up plants. They get their energy from the chloroplasts that use photosynthesis to turn sunlight into glucose. Plant cells are Eukaryotic for they have membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells are sort of rectangular and unlike animal cells, they have a cell wall and chloroplasts.
      - Amyloplasts: Convert starch into sugar when the plant needs energy.
        
        Cell membrane: The flexible structure found on the outside of both plant and animal cells that controls what comes and goes from the cell.
        
        Cell wall: A part of plant cells that supports and protects the cell.
        
        Centrosome: Where microtubules are made.
        
        Nucleus: Contains DNA of the cells and controls the functions of the cells.
        
        Chloroplast: Convert sunlight into glucose (sugar) via photosynthesis.
        
        Mitochondria: The part of the cell that produces energy.
        
        Golgi apparatus: The part of the cell that is involved in secretion and intracellular transport.
        
        Ribosomes: The part of the cell that assembles proteins
        
        Nuclear Membrane: The membrane that encloses the nucleus.
        
        Golgi vesicles: The organelle that creates lysosomes.
        
        Raphide crystals: The part of the cell that is a needle-shaped crystals made calcium oxalate as the monohydrate or calcium carbonate as aragonite.
        
        Druse crystals: Are defense against herbivory due to their toxicity. Calcium oxalate.
        
        Smooth ER: Involved with the movement of materials.
        
        Rough ER: Has ribosomes attached to the surface.
        
        Nucleolus: The small dense thing in the middle of the nucleus during interphase.
        
        Vacuole: A organelle filled with water to help the cell.
        
        Cytoplasm: The jelly like fluid inside a cell made up of mostly water and salt.
        
        Vacuole membrane: The membrane that surrounds the vacuole.
- - - - 2)Newton's second law states that acceleration is proportional to force and is inversely proportional to mass. The net force of an object will equal the mass of an object times the acceleration. So the equation is F=a m. It also says that acceleration of an object is equal to force over mass and the equation is a=f/mTo put it simpler the more mass something has the less it will accelerate than something with less mass if the force that acts upon each is the same. For example, if you are pushing a go-cart and a truck with the same amount of force the go-cart will accelerate faster. You can use this equation to figure out the rate of acceleration of something based on the mass and the force (measured in newtons). Another example is if you have a 1/4 kilogram beach ball and a 3 kilogram bowling ball and roll them both with 1/10 a newton of force. The beach ball would accelerate faster than the bowling ball. But if the force is not equal the object with more force applied to it would usually accelerate faster. One more example is a 5kg rock is accelerating at a rate of 7 m/s/s the force acting upon it would be 35 newtons.
      - 1) The first law of motion is known as "The Law of Inertia". This law states that an object with a constant speed and direction will stay moving at that same speed in the same direction unless acted upon by a net external force.If an object isn't moving (has a speed of zero) it will stay unmoving until acted upon by a net external force. For example, if in space you threw a tennis ball it would move in that direction until it hit something. On earth, however, we have a ton of net external forces that we can't control. Some are gravity, friction (the resistance when an object encounters when moving over or against another surface or object), and many objects that would stop motion. Another example is rolling a ball on the ground, eventually, it would stop no matter how hard you rolled it because of the surface friction of the ground and the air resistance from the air. Also if an object was sitting still on a flat surface (because gravity could move it should it not be on a flat surface) it would stay there and not move unless acted upon by and net external force. Now, what is a net external force? A net external force is the overall force acting on an object.
      - Newton's third law or the law of reaction states that when one object exerts a force on another object the second objects exerts a equivalent force in the opposite direction. To put it simpler for every motion, force or action there is a equal or opposite reaction. For example if you bounce a ball on the ground the force will be the same coming up as it was coming down, however gravity will take a chunk out of that force so it won't bounce up all the way to your hand. Another example is if you throw a ball against a wall it will bounce back to you instead of just hitting the wall and falling. Another thing to remember for this law is that the forces are exerted of different objects. Like if a ball hit a wall there would be force exerted on the wall and force exerted on the ball. Say you throw a ball onto the ground using all of your strength it will probably bounce up past your head. That's because since it hit the ground with so much force, it flew upwards with the same amount of force. One more example is if you are walking and you push of the ground then the ground pushes back with the same force at you.
      - Forces
        
        Force- Is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.
        
        Newtons (N)- The SI unit of force.It is equal to the force that would give a mass one kilogram an acceleration of one meter per second per second, and is equivalent 100,000 dynes.
        
        Isaac Newton- An English Mathematician and Physicist; remembered for developing the calculus and for his law of gravitation and his three laws of motion.
        
        Friction-Is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces. fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other.
        
        Gravity-The force that attracts a body toward the center on the Earth, or toward any other physical body having mass. For most purposes Newton's laws of gravity apply, with minor modifications to take the general theory of relativity into accoun
        
        Energy
        
        Thermal energy: Heat energy
        
        Kinetic energy: The energy of movement
        
        Chemical energy: The potential for a chemical substance to go through a transformation.
        
        Potential energy: The energy based on position
        
        Electrical energy: The flow of electric power or charge
        
        Radiant energy: The energy of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation
        
        Gravitational energy: Gravity energy
        
        Elastic energy: The energy that is being stored in an object as it is being stretched or compressed.
        
        Energy conversion
        
        Energy can convert from one form to the next. For example when your at the top of a hill you have lots of potential energy and when you go down the hill you have less potential energy and more kinetic energy.
        
        Ex. Microwaves transform electrical energy into thermal energy.