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INTRO: Organisational structure etc (Structural types (Functional (Role…
INTRO: Organisational structure etc
Organisational Psychology
Career
Improve individual job satisfaction
Tasks/ concerns
Recruitment/ assessment
Training
Motivation & Feedback (guidance)
Optimising leadership & team cohesion
Efficiency an effectivity of organisation
Discipline perspectives
Scientific management
Optimal efficiency of a process, regardless of 'human' factors: the 'mechanistic worker'
Fred Winslow Taylor:
industrial efficiency optimisation... workers do not naturally work at best efficiency and need to set up framework to maximise
4 principles
Select, train and develop employees, don't leave to own devices
Detailed instruction and supervision
Replace rule-of-thumb with empirically tested methods
Management: scientific principles, Workers: perform to the letter
Evidence:
Pig Iron
enforced rest periods (not just when workers tire) increased productivity significantly
Shovelling:
Deduce optimal weight to shovel, then provide workers with an optimal sized shovel.
i.e.
shovel large enough to be productive but small enough not to tire/injure too quickly
300-400% productivity increase
Extrinsic rewards (high pay) key influencer on productivity, as was a safe environment
*Moving away from scientific management
The Illumination Fiasco
Hawthorne:
discovered that better lighting (improvements in technology) lead to higher productivity.
i.e.
Being observed key factor
Shows that HR approach may have more influence that scientific management
True even for
all groups
including control group in which no changes to routine were made
Lack of autonomy for workers lead to
strikes
: an oppressive regime?!
Task focus, Productivity based, mechanical perspective
Human Relations
Interpersonal relations: individual influence on productivity
i.e.
employee motivation
Worker focus, Well-being based, Social processes perspective
Intrinsic reward focus: listen to workers, understand their needs and desires and everyone can benefit: "Happy Employee Happy Company"
Contingency
Unique circumstance: subjectivity of optimal approach dependent on context
Woodward:
best structure dependent on organisation type
Contingency factors
: internal and external elements which determine the optimal structure/ management style
Small batch production = flexible, Large batch production = rigid, Process production = flexible
Span of control, employee-supervisor relsp, un/skilled employees, duty clarity, authority delegation etc...
:warning: traditional Pyramid structures not as reliable as once thought: slower and more inflexible...
"New logic of organising"
Dynamic, growth, information key, global, customer oriented, lateral (flat), team oriented
e.g.
Nike, outsource manufacturing and focus on branding, marketing and innovation: key for globalisation
Cultural differences
Hofstede
IBM
4 Dimensions of Organisational Variation
Uncertainty avoidance: willingness to deal with ambiguity... high: well established norms, laws etc... low = OK with ambiguity, more diverse etc
Individualism-Collectivism
Power distance: high= more centralised, emphasis on power... low = doubt of hierarchy and attempts to redistribute power
Masculinity-Femininity: M: preference for assertiveness, heroism, success etc. F: preference for care, quality of life, modesty, cooperation etc. Women are the key feature: either more M or F, more or less equal to men
Managers' adaptability
different attitude toward each employee/ group/ department/ branch
acknowledge different cultural norms and subcultures which require different action in order to ensure
productivity
and
employee satisfaction
e.g.
Acceptable to ask someone's salary in
USA
, perhaps not elsewhere... In
Germany
, unacceptable to omit someone's title "Mr, Mrs" etc. required
Factors to consider
Goals
Produce knowledge
Produce product
Beneficiaries
Management
Shareholders
Public
e.g.
Government
Reward Systems
Utilitarian
e.g.
Retail
Normative
e.g.
Church
Coercive
e.g.
Prison
Hierarchy of authority
Division of labour
Formality
Formal
Clear structure and hierarchy
Informal
Autonomy, room for creativity, innovation and growth
Mixture
Arguably best approach
Problematic in practice
Structural types
Functional
Role
Can share expertise within department
Isolation: need to ensure effective communication between departments
Process
Activity
Those working on same process are together so hopefully process efficiency can be optimised
Product
Grouped by outcome (product) type
Better communication within departments
i.e.
product maximisation
Isolation between departments
i.e.
lack overall maximisation, not sharing knowledge/ resources as efficiently as possible
Customer
Needs of consumers
e.g.
male/ female dept in retail
Basically the same as Product but broader
Territorial
Geographical
Deal with customer subgroups better
Lower loyalty to the top authority and more loyalty to the subgroup
Matrix
Multiple managers, cross-sectional
Allows one worker to be part of multiple groups - can ease communication and allow more specific roles
Conflicts of managing styles or power struggles
(De)Centralisation
Small decision making group? ->
Steep
(formal)
Autonomy at lower levels in organisation? ->
Flat
(informal)
Span of control: how many people report directly to manager?
Wide (
Flat
)
low overhead, high efficiency of decision making
Less one-on-one/ manager input
Narrow (
Steep
)
high overhead, low efficiency of decision making
More one-on-one/ manager input
Neuroticism: characterisation of organisations
Paranoid
Suspicion, centralised, seek to diversify
Compulsive
Procedural, centralised, slow, thourough
Histrionic
Impulsive, centralised, intuitive, risk-taking
Depressive
Lack confidence, lack of productivity/ activity, unable to react appropriately to changes in market
Schizoid
Lack of leadership (decentralised, informal), high autonomy/ individual goals, power struggles
Organisational culture:
implicit norms, beliefs and assumptions driving organisation can be hard to change and can cause problems
e.g.
during Mergers
Rites, ceremonies, symbols, language etc communicate these implicit values
Harrison
4 types
Role
Positions are prominent 'pillars'
Slow to respond
Good in a stable market
Support
Promotes community
More autonomy across the board
Power
Senior management are prominent (centralised): autocratic leadership
Depend on the few not the many, so heavy burden for senior
Quick to respond to changes
Achievement
Values success, initiative
e.g.
University
Deal & Kenny
High/ Low Risk :red_cross: Fast/ Slow Feedback
H :red_cross: S: Bet your company culture: Respect of authority, industry subject to cyclical change
e.g.
Oil industry
L :red_cross: S: Process culture: detail, well-defined procedure
e.g.
Govmt
L :red_cross: F: Work hard, play hard: action oriented, fun
e.g.
Estate agent
H :red_cross: F: Tough-guy macho culture: entrepreneurial, individualistic
e.g.
Media, consultancy
Communication
Technological advances
more immediate, practically convenient etc
Pitfalls
:forbidden:lose non-verbal cues :forbidden:easy to have miscommunications or mis-interpretations :forbidden: Also, easy to ignore an email compared to someone asking a question face-to-face
Byron
emoticons can help overcome issue of lacking NVC and can elaborate and clarify meaning and tone of the message
Transactional analysis
investigates communication between managers and employees
Can improve relations and ease tensions
If people's expectations of communication are different then there can be problems
e.g.
employee expects adult-to-adult talk but manager displays parent-to-child talk
Types
Adult: equality
Child: Individualistic, irrational
Parent: self-righteous, patronising, role model behaviour