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PAPER 1 QUESTION 3 THEORY (PRAGMATICS (GRICES MAXIMS (QUALITY - telling…
PAPER 1 QUESTION 3 THEORY
PRAGMATICS
DAVID CRYSTAL
PRAGMATICS is the study of the choices you make when you use language, reasons for those choices and effects of those choices
THE SPEECH ACT THEORY
sees language as an action rather than an expression
looks at what we say, how we say it and what we mean
talking is not just semantics but acting and meaning
LOCUTIONARY - what we actually say
ILLOCUTIONARY - implied meaning
PERLOCUTIONARY - action/perceived meaning
H. GILES - ACCOMMODATION THEORY
this is when we adapt our speech to accommodate others
ACCOMMODATION - the process of adapting your speech to make it more or less similar to that of the other participants in the conversation
CONVERGENCE - if a speaker changes or adapts their language to speak in a similar way
this can be done for a number of reasons
social acceptance
demonstrating friendship
bring the speakers closer together
DIVERGENCE - communication strategy of accentuating the differences between you and another person
GRICES MAXIMS
QUALITY - telling the truth
QUANTITY - give maximum information with minimum effort
RELATION - be relevant and act accordingly, no abrupt topic shifts
MANNER - be clear and not obscure
FLOUTING - breaking a maxim on purpose
ERVING GOFFMAN
POSITIVE FACE NEEDS - those associated with feeling appreciated and valued
NEGATIVE FACE NEEDS - the desire to feel independent and not imposed on, have a sense of choice
BROWN AND LEVISON
FACE - the image we present of ourselves to others
politeness theories make sure you don't impose on someones
GENDER
DEFICIT APPROACH
ROBIN LAKOFF - defines adult male language as the standard and women as the deficit
trends of female spoken language
lack of humour
specialised vocabulary
direct quotations
intensifiers
polite forms
hedges
tag questions
emphatic language
question intonation in declarative context
hyper correct grammar
empty adjectives
trends of male spoken language
covert prestige
tell more jokes
more direct through declaratives and explicit commands
interrupt more
swear more
better sense if humour
simplified vocab in some fields
WOMEN
overt prestige - generally one widely recognised s being used by a culturally dominant group e,g, RP
MEN
covert prestige - perceived by the dominant culture as being inferior but which compels its speaker to use it to show membership
GEORGE KEITH AND JOHN SHUTTLEWORTH
WOMEN
talk too much
complain
more polite
support each other
more cooperative
ask more questions
indecisive
MEN
more commands
talk about women and machines in the same way
swear more
interrupt
dont talk about emotions
competitive
insult more frequently
speak with authority
dominate conversation
DOMINANCE APPROACH
ZIMMERMAN AND WEST
an approach whereby the female sex is seen as the subordinate whose difference in style of speech results from the male supremacy and a possible affect of patriarchy, this results in a primarily male centred language
men are seen to control and dominate mixed sex interactions, use more interruptions - men make 98% of interruptions in a conversation
however, not all interruptions are to assert power
this is believed to reflect the male domination in society
However, society is no longer patriarchal
WILLIAM O'BARR AND BOWMAN
book called 'women language or a powerless language'
studied language in the courtroom
found female lawyers to be assertive and they interrupted
both sexes use Lakoffs 'weak' language
concluded that it is a result of power
ROBIN LAKOFF
male language is powerful and female language is powerless
women use tag questions, interrogatives etc in place of imperatives
DALE SPENDER - 'men control knowledge and I believe this is a sight we should never loose sight of'
DIFFERENCE APPROACH
DEBORAH TANNEN
an approach of equality, differentiating men and women as belonging to different subcultures to men because of the way the have been socialised
SATUS VS SUPPORT
INDEPENDANCE VS INTIMACY
GIVING ADVICE VS TAKING IT/UNDERSTANDING IT
ORDERS VS PROPOSALS
CONFLICT VS COMPROMISE
POWER
FAIRCLOUGH
INFLUENTIAL POWER - power being used to persuade to agree and influence ideologies without force
INSTRUMENTAL POWER - person already in a position of power
enforce power through rules e.g. bible controls public through rules, codes of conduct
with force
SYNTHETIC PERSONALISATION - advertising used this technique to create a synthetic relationship with its audience
CRYSTAL
the language we use is a direct reflection of society's ideas and ideologies and values
SAPIR AND WHORF
thoughts and ideas are determined by language
WAREING
political, personal and social group power
TECHNOLOGY
DAVID CRYSTAL
the internet is the largest corpus of English vocabulary that ever existed, new words would take approx 10 years to be embedded into the English language but a new words can be introduced and spoken in seconds
punctuation marks and letters have adapted to express feelings
multi-word sentences and response sequences are minimised to initialisms e.g. LOL and acronyms e.g. FOMO
consonants have higher informational value than vowels e.g. pls
homophonic representation - single letters and numbers represent the sounds of words e.g. M8
variant orthography - spellings that are non-standard and phonetic e.g. cuz
HERRING
suggests the greater persistence of digital English over speech heightens users awareness of the language they use and that this might encourage language play
ELIZABETH EISENSTEIN
argued personal and social change was afforded possibilities by technology, not constrained by them
MCLUHAN
focused on the role of printing as a catalyst for personal and social change, creating the typographical man
typographic man - the idea that our beliefs and identity are shaped by the media we use e.g. Facebook changes how we interact with each other
TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM - a reductionist theory that presumes that a society's technology drives development of its social and cultural values
digital texts are viewed by many to affect personal and social change