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Animal Physiology (Circulation and Gas Exchange (functions and types of…

- - - - As the ventricles begin their contraction, the interventricular pressure rises, causing the AV valves to snap shut
    - - homeostatic mechanisms regulate arterial blood pressure by altering the diameter of arterioles
    - - helps understand fainting
      - fainting response is triggered when nervous system detects that the blood pressure in your brain is below level needed
      - by falling to the ground, your head is at the level of your heart, quickly increasing blood flow to the brain
  - - - Lymph is formed from the tissue fluid that fills the interstitial spaces of the body
      - It is collected into lymph capillaries, which carry the lymph to the larger lymph vessels
  - - - carries blood from the heart to organs throughout the body
      - branches out to arterioles
    - - small vessels convey blood to capillaries
      - infiltrate tissues
      - small gasses and other chemicals are exchanged by diffusion between blood and the interstitial fluid around the tissue cells
    - - the vessels that carry blood back to the heart
      - has different direction than arteries that are carrying blood
  - - - Plasma:
        
        dissolved in the plasma are ions and proteins that when together with white blood cells function in osmotic regulation,transport , and defense
      - Sickle-cell Disease
        
        abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into aggregates: results from the alteration of amino acid sequence of hemoglobin at one position
    - - when blood vessels are broken by an injury, a cut or scrape, a chain of events ensures that quickly seals the break
      - halts blood loss and exposure to infection
    - - Atherosclerosis
        
        the hardening of arteries by accumulation of fatty deposits
        
        key component is cholesterol : a steroid that is important for maintaining normal membrane fluidity in animal cells
      - Heart Attack
        
        also called myocardial infraction is the damage or death of cardiac muscle or tissues
        
        results from blockage of one ore more coronary arteries, which supplies oxygen to heart muscle
      - Stroke
        
        death of nervous tissue in the brain due to the lack of oxygen
        
        result from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
        
        the effects of a stroke and the chance of survival depends on the extent and location of damaged brain tissue
  - - - 3 chambered heart
      - enclosed in two membranes- an inner epicardium and outer pericardium.
      - The space between these two layers is called pericardial cavity
        
        keeps heart moist
        
        protects heart from mechanical injury
    - - 4 chambered
      - circulation forms a loop from the heart throughout the different sections of the body
      - Arteries gather blood with oxygen from the heart and send it out to the tissues where it disperses oxygen and gathers carbon dioxide on the way back to the heart
      - he blood goes from the heart to the lungs to receive oxygen before coming back to the heart and then out through the primary arteries again
    - - 2 chambered heart
      - single circulation
      - blood is low in oxygen which contains a pacemaker cells that initiate contractions
  - - - outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in the water
      - have total surface area much greater than the rest of the body's exterior
        
        Ex: crayfish-have paddle like appendages that drives the current over their gills
        
        Octopus and squids ventilate their gills by taking in and ejecting water
      - movement of respiratory medium over respiratory surface is ventilation
        
        to promote this, most gill-bearing animals either move their gills through the water or move water over their gills
    - - respiratory surfaces are closed for most terrestrial animal
      - network of air tubes that branch throughout the body
      - because it brings air within a very short distance of virtually every body cell in an insect
    - - localized respiratory organs
      - represents infolding of the body surface
        
        lungs evolved in organisms with open circulatory system, such as spiders, and vertebrates
      - because the respiratory surface of lungs isn't in direct contact with all other parts of body, the gap must be bridged by circulatory system
        
        transport gases between lungs and rest of body
  - - - circulatory fluid is blood
        
        one or more hearts pumps blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate tissues and ogans
        
        Chemical exchange occurs between blood and the interstitial fluid as well as between interstitial fluid and body cells
        
        Ex: Annelids ( including earthworms), cephalopods(including squids and octopuses) and all vertebrates
      - Benefits
        
        blood pressure high enough to enable the effective delivery of oxygen and nutrients to larger and more active animals
    - - the circulatory fluid called hemolymph is also the interstitial fluid inside cells
        
        Ex: grasshoppers, clams, some molluscs
      - contractions of the heart pumps the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses
        
        spaces around the organs
        
        the hemolymph and the body exchange gases and other chemicals
      - relaxation of the heart draws hemolymph back in through pores
      - open circulatory systems of larger crustaceans includes a more extensive system of vessels as well as an accessory pump
        
        Ex: crabs and lobsters
    - - allows animals to live without a circulatory system
      - an opening at one end connects cavity to the surrounding water
        
        Jellies and other Cindarians
      - fluids bathes both the inner and outer tissue layers: facilitating exchange of gases and cellular waste
    - - These animals undergo diffusion( random thermal motion)
        
        simple body plan that places many or all cells in direct contact with the environment
        
        Ex: characteristics apply to Poriferia, Cindaria, and flatworms
    - - animals with a 2 chambered heart
        
        The Atrium
        
        A Ventricle
      - blood entering the hearts collects in the atrium and a ventricle
      - ventricle pumps blood to a capillary bed in the gills
        
        there is a net diffusion of oxygen into the blood and of carbon dioxide our of the blood
    - - animals with 4 chambered heart
        
        the pumps for the two circuits are combined into 1 organ, the heart
        
        simplifies coordination of the pumping cycle
      - Right Side (The Pulmonary Circuit or Pulmocutaneous) of the heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues
      - Left Side (the systemic circuit) of the heart pumping oxygen-enriched blood from gas exchange tissues to the capillary beds in organs and tissues
  - - - humans have negative pressure breathing
      - meaning that when we breathe in our diaphragm contract rib cage expands
      - Breathe out the diaphragm relaxes and rib cage gets smaller
      - we can voluntarily hold in our breathe or fasten our breathing, its mainly an involuntarily mechanism
        
        these control mechanisms ensures that gas exchange is coordinated with blood circulation and with metabolic demand
    - - when birds breathe it passes over the gas exchange surface in only one direction
      - air sacs on either side of lungs acts as bellows that direct air flow through the lungs
      - ventilation is highly efficent
        
        incoming fresh air does not mix with air that's already been carried out gas exchanged which maximizes blood flow
    - - positive pressure breathing
      - inflation begins when muscles lower to the floor of amphibian's oral cavity
        
        drawing air through nostrils
- - - - Reabsorbtion
        
        take back valuable substances from filtrate and returns to body fluid
      - Secretion
        
        other substances such as toxins and excess ions are extracted from body fluids
      - Filtration
        
        the excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood : water and solutes are removed and gets moved in tubes
      - Elimination/ Excretion
        
        the altered filtrate (urine) leaves the system and the body
    - - Metanephridia
        
        Most Annelids (earthworms): has excretory organs that collects fluid directly from the coelom
        
        pair of metanephridia are found in each segment of earthworm
        
        ciliated funnel surrounds the internal opening of each metanephridia
        
        earthworms live in damp soil and usually experience a net uptake of water by osmosis through their skin
      - Malpighian
        
        removes nitrogenous waste and also function in osmoregulation
        
        tubules extend from dead-end tips immersed in hemolymph to openings into the digestive tract
        
        Insects and other anthropods
        
        the transport epithelium that lines the tubules secretes certain solutes from the hemolymph into the lumen of the tubule
        
        water follows solutes into the tubules by osmosis
        
        the insect excretory system is capable of conserving water very effectively( advantageous for land animals)
      - Protonephridia
        
        flatworms: lack coelom
        
        network of dead end tubules that branches throughout body
        
        cellular units (flame bulb caps) has a tuft of cilia projecting into the tubule
        
        Urine excreted by freshwater flatworms is low in solutes its production helps to balance the osmotic uptake of water from environment
      - Kidney
        
        functions in both excretion and osmoregulation
        
        tubules of kidneys arranged in highly organized manner and are closely associated with a network of capillaries
        
        Vertebrates and some other chordates
        
        non-segmented, transports and stores urine
  - - - Glomerular Filtration: Bowman's Capsule
        
        from blood into nephron
    - - Tubular Secretion: Distal C.T.
        
        from blood to the tubular fluid
      - Tubular Reabsorption: Proximal C.T.
        
        tubular fluid into blood
  - - - Urea
        
        much less toxic
        
        animals that live on land and many marine species
        
        in vertebrates it's a product of an energy-consuming metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with CO_2 in the liver
      - Uric Acid
        
        Reptiles, birds and insects
        
        non-toxic: does not readily dissolve in water
        
        highly concentration=white color
        
        excreted as semi-solid paste with minimal water loss
      - Ammonia
        
        animals that need a lot of water: aquatic animals (mainly fresh water)
        
        can only be tolerated in low concentrations
        
        toxic
      - humans and some other animals can produce a small amount of uric acid from metabolism even though they're not primarily uric acid producers
  - - - osmoregulation: regulation of waters and salts
      - osmolarity: a measure of concentration
        
        moles/ meter
      - if one were to sprinkle salt on a slug the slug would dry up due to dehydration creating a hypertonic exterior
      - fresh water fish
        
        takes in lots of water and pees lots of water
      - Marine fish
        
        has the same concentration of salt with the ocean
        
        maintains the balance of salt as the environment: keeps salt in
      - if a human were to drink ocean water, they would dehydrate because the stomach turns into a hypertonic variable which makes one excrete more than they put in
  - - - Regulation of blood pressure (amount of water in food)
      - make angiotensin 2(active hormone)
        
        regulates blood presure
        
        aldosterone: regulates amount of salt
    - - help conserves water which is triggered by dehydration
      - pituitary gland and hypothalamus releases it