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Animal physiology (Circulation and Gas Exchange (blood pressure (blood…

- - - - circulatory fluid is called hemolymph, is also the interstitial fluid that baths body cells. Arthropods such as grasshoppers and some molluscs
      - hemolymph and body cells exchange gases & other chemicals, relaxation of the heart draws hemolymph back in through pores
    - - Single circulation
        
        Blood travels through the body & returns to its starting point in a single circuit found in sharks, rays, and bony fishes
        
        these animals have a heart that consists of 2 chambers (an atrium and a ventricle)
        
        blood entering the heart collects in the atrium before transfer to the ventricle , contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to a capillary bed in the gills where O2 and CO2 are exchanged
      - Double circulation
        
        The circulatory systems of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals have 2 circuits of blood flow
        
        the pumps for the 2 circuits are combined into the heart, having both pumps within a single heart simplifies coordination of the pumping cycle
        
        Frogs and other amphibians have a heart with 3 chambers - 2 arteries, and 1 ventricle (not most efficient to transport oxygen)
        
        the ridge within the ventricle diverts most (90%) of the oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium into the systemic circuit & most of the oxygen-poor blood from right atrium goes into pulmocutaneous
        
        mammals have a heart with 4 chambers - 2 arteries, and 2 ventricles which are completely divided ( most efficient to transport oxygen)
        
        left side of the heart receives & pumps only oxygen-rich blood, while the right side receives & pumps only oxygen-poor blood
  - - - infiltrate tissues, passing within a few cell diameters of every cell in the body
  - - - At the end of capillaries converge into venules, and venules converges into veins
  - - - localized respiratory organs; most reptiles & mammals depend on entirely on lungs
        
        surfactant
        
        a mix of phospholipid & proteins coat that reduce surface tension in the alveoli
        
        cilia
        
        small hair like structure that get a hold of dust particles & also move mucos
      - in amphibians if there is lungs, they are small because amphibians rely on diffusion across external body surfaces like the skin to carry out gas exchange
      - The mammalian respiratory system
        
        From the nasal cavity & pharynx inhaled air passes through the larynx, trachea, & bronchi to the bronchioles, which end in microscopic alveoli
    - - gills are outfoldings of the body surface that are suspended in the water
      - ventilation
        
        movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface
      - countercurrent exchange
        
        the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite direction
  - - - inflating the lungs with forced air flow
      - inhalation starts when muscles lower the floor of an amphibian's oral cavity drawling, drawing in air through its nostrils with the nostrils & mouth closed,
        
        the floor of the oral cavity rises forcing air down the trachea. Exhalation follows as air is expelled by the recoil of the lungs & by compression of the muscular body wall
    - - pulling, rather than pushing , air into their lungs
      - using muscle contraction to actively expand the thoracic, mammals lower air pressure in their lungs
        
        expanding the thoracic cavity during inhalation involves the animal's rib muscles & the diaphragm
  - - - lymph is recovered fluid, circulates within the lymphatic system before draining
  - - - the elastic walls of the arteries snap back, there is a lower but still substantial blood pressure
    - - arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts during ventricular systole, creating a spike in blood pressure which results in a pulse
    - - vasoconstriction
        
        when the smooth muscles in arteriole walls contract, the arterioles narrow
      - vasodilation
        
        when the smooth muscles relax, an increase in diameter that cause blood pressure in arteries to fall
    - - normal blood pressure is 120/70 mm of Hg, which is measured with sphygmomanmeter
      - gravity causes the blood pressure to decrease and causes the feeling of fainting when you go from sitting down to standing up
      - gravity draw the blood downward to your feet & impedes it upward to the heart when you are standing or sitting
  - - - substances transported by the blood, and contains water, blood, ions, & plasma proteins
    - - cells male up 45% of blood and include red blood cells leukocytes, & platelets
      - leukocytes
        
        5,000-10,000 per mm3 of blood
        
        lymphocytes, eosinophils, functions in defense & immunity, neutrons, and monocytes
      - platelets
        
        250,000-400,000, cell fragments that are involved in the clotting process
      - erythrocytes
        
        RBC's that function in the transport of O2 & some CO2, and theu carry hemoglobin
- - - - the general term for the process by which animal control solute concentration & balance water gain & loss
    - - internal water balance is the same as the environment
    - - to control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment
    - - the unit of measurement for solute concentration
  - - - in addition, salt lost by diffusion & in the urine are replenishing by eating & by salt uptake across their gills
  - - - they actively transport specific solutes that establish levels in hemolymph
    - - the excess salt is ingested with seawater are eliminated through the gills and kidneys
  - - - filtration: items in blood go to nephron, no RBC or proteins
      - reabsorption: keeps some items & go back to blood
      - secretion: last chance to rid of items
      - excretion: get rid of waste by peeing
    - - a duct that urine exits through from the kidney
    - - common sac where ureters drain into
    - - a tube where urine is expelled through
  - - - a single long tubule & ball of capillaries
    - - the blind end if the tubule forms a cup-shape swelling
        
        the structure surround the glomerulus,where filtration occurs
    - - absorption here is critical for the recapture of ions, water, and valuable nutrients from the huge volume of initial filtrate; also helps with PH balance
    - - water is excreted from the tubule
    - - the movement of NaCl out of the tubule helps maintain the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid in the medulla
    - - regulates the K & NaCl concentration of the body fluids
    - - receives processed filtrate from many nephrons & transports it to the renal pelvis