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Organ Systems (Osmoregulation&Excretion (Excretion (Forms of…

- - - - Urea: Mammals,most amphibians,Sharks& some bony fishes. Less toxic than uric a.&NH3. High Energy cost.
      - Uric Acid: Birds& Reptiles. Insoluble white paste. Expensive energy cost.Dissolves car paint.
      - Ammonia: In fish. Toxic.
      - Form of N.waste is related to Energy Consumption and Habitat
    - - Reabsorption:Recovers useful molecules&H2O from filtrate for return to body fluid.
      - Excretion:Altered filtrate leaves the body.
      - Secretion:Active transport of waste added to filtrates
      - Filtration:Water&Solute forced through tubules to form filtrate
    - - Malpighian Tubule: insects: No filtration step. Produce uric acid.
      - Kidney: Kidney>2 ureters each>urinary bladder>Uretha>Sphincter> Urine out of the body.
        
        Nephron
        
        Glomerular Capillaries&Bowman's Capsule: fluid from bldstream pass through by BP to form filtrates.
        
        Ascending Limb of Loop of Henle: Lacks water channel unlike descending loop.Loses NaCl loop tip by diffusion and thick segment by active transport. Filtrate now less conc.
        
        Proximal Tubules:reabsorption of ions, H2O,valuable nutrients, and bicarbonate to buffer pH. Added Amino a.,Toxins,drugs,glucose via active transport.
        
        Descending Limb of loop of Henle: Reabsorption of H20 and increased solute conc of filtrate due to aquaporins and Hyperosmolarity of interstitial fluid compared to medulla.
        
        Distal Tubule:Reg: K+&NaCl conc. pH reg-secrection of H+ and reabsorption of HCO3
        
        Collecting tubules:Processes filtrate into urine as it carries to renal pelvis. Depending on hormonal control of the body at the time. The kidney will either reabsorb or allow more flow of H2o/Urea.
        
        Countercurrent Multiplier
        
        Def: Process of using energy to generate an osmotic gradient that allows reasborption of tubular fluid and make conc. urine.
        
        Adv:Helps mammals to conserve H20 and nutrients
        
        Adaptation of Vertebrates kidney to Env: Number of nephrons or other adaptive water conserve mechanism of the animal depends on its env at the time e.g vampire bats at night/ in roost.
      - Metanephridia:Earthwaorms: Immersed in colemic fluid, produce dilute urine
      - Protonephridia: Planaria. Branch thro the body due to no colem. Produce dilute urine
  - - - Osmoregulator: Controls internal osmolarity independent of env e.g Dogs
      - Osmoconformer: Conform to env. Isoosmotic with its env. e.g fish
      - Adaptation
        
        Anhydrobiosis:'' Life without H2O'' e.g tardigrades/waterbears
        
        Fresh Animal: Threat- Swelling:Excrete dilute urine, drink almost no water, eating& salt uptake via gills.
        
        Marine animal: Threat- Shrinking: Drinks sea water& excrete salt via gills/Kidneys
        
        Land Animals:Threat- Dehydration:Includes-thick outer covering/conc urine/drinking or eating moist food/cellular respiration produce H20
        
        Salt/Water reg
        
        E.g- birds excrete salt via nose, if having high conc of salt-dilute by drinking lots of water/excretion-urine/sweat.
        
        Salt conc can be changes via excretion/dilution
        
        ''water follows salt''.
        
        0.9% saline req to prevent popping cell of dehydrated person.
    - - Hypertonic: Solution with >>er solute conc than other across the semi-permeable membrane
      - Hypotonic: Solution with <<er solute conc than other across the semi-permeable membrane
      - Isotonic: Same conc across the semi-permeable membrane
      - Osmolarity: number of moles of solute per liter solution.Unit: mOsm/L. Human blood: ~300mOsm/L
    - - Endocrine Circuit
        
        ADH
        
        Hypothalalmus influence of secretion of ADH (Vasopressin) via** Posterior Pituitary gland due to level of blood Osmolarity- for reabsorption/release of water.
        
        Diabetes Insipiduis:Disease of ADH which cause solute imbalance/Dehydration
        
        RAAS
        
        Respond to drop in bld volume/pressure by increasing H2O & Na+ reabsorption
        
        Bld volume/pressure drops>Renin>Angiotensinogen>Angiotensin II> Vasoconstriction>Increase BP/decrease bld flow to kidney.Also Aldosterone>nephrons distal tubule to reabsorb more Na+&H2O>Increase bld volume/pressure
        
        ANP & Drugs e.g ACE inhibits activity of RAAS to treat high BP
- - - - Positive Pressure:In Frogs
      - Negative Pressure: Lowers air pressure in lungs compared to the atm.
      - Diaphragm: Skeletal muscle involved in respiration. Rises up in inhalation to increase Thoracic cavity and vice versa
      - Terms
        
        Tidal Volume:Volume of air inhaled&exhaled at each breathe~500mL
        Vital Capacity:maximum inhalation/exhalation 3.4-4.8L
        Residual Volume: Remaining air after forced exhalation. Increases with aging. Reason for birds more efficient than human at high altitudes PO2atm>PO2alveoli
      - Control of breathing:Involuntary Mechanism- Breathing centers in Medulla oblongata. CO2 levels determine increase pH levels of bld&CSF. Receptors in bld vessels e.g aorta send signals to MB which influences inhalation via rib muscles.
      - Pigments
        
        Myoglobin-O2 carrier, greater affinity for o2 than Hb.
        
        ''Diving Reflex" ability of animal to remain underwater without breathing. Evol adaptation: utlizing Myoglobin to retain/provide o2 at such times.
        
        Hemoglobin: Carrier of O2. Red in color, Bohr Shift-shift to product/reactant by change in pH of the bld, conc. or temp.
- - - - Closed Sys: Circ fluid-blood. Distinct from Interstitial Fluid. Heart pump blood e.g Dogs. High Energy req animals.
      - Open Sys: Circ. fluid is Hemolymph-bathes body cells e.g Mollusc--clams,anthropods-grasshoppers. Low Energy req animal
    - - Single: Blood travel in 1 direction. 2 Chambered1 Atrium 1 ventricle- Fish. Sluggish
      - Double: 2 circuit blood flow: 3 chambered-2 artrium/1or 4 chambered 2 ventricles- Frog/Human. Pulmonary&Systemic Circuit. Better oxygenation with added ventricles
      - Evolutionary variation:1 atrium/1 ventricle/ Lower Hydrostatic Pressure> 2 atrium/1 ventricle>2 atrium/2 ventricles High Pressure/Large Heart.
    - - Valves
        
        Semilunar valves:Located at exits of the heart.Where pulmonary a. leaves RT Ventricle & Aorta leaves LT ventricles. Prevents backflow
        
        Open/closing of valves- ''Lub-dup'' sound pattern. Heart Murmur-Defects of valve-blood squirts backwards.
        
        AV valve:Lies btw each Atrium&Ventricle: Prevents backflow into the atrium.s
      - Heart's Rhythmic Beat
        
        Pacemaker (SA)>AV node(0.1s delay)>Bundle of His>Purkinje Fibers>Ventricle Contract.
        
        Factors Affecting Hrt Rhthym: Nervous- Sym/ParaSym, Endocrine-Hormones- Epinephrine, Temperature.
      - Bld flow: RA>RV>PA>Lungs>PV>LA>LV>Aorta>System
    - - Veins: Less thick. Has Valves. Carries bld to heart with a few exceptions: PA, HPA.
      - Capillaries: smallest. Diameter slightly larger than RBC.
      - Arteries: Thick,strong& more elastic than vein. Carry bld away from heart with a few exceptions. PV,HPV
      - Bld flow velocity inversely propr to CSA. Decrease as bld move from arteries to capillaries, increases from capillaries to veins.
      - BP, Nervous sys & Hormones, C.Sphincter affects bld flw through Capillaries -Vasconstrition&Vasolidation- Heat/Cold.
      - BP drives fluid off Capillaries- Change in Osmotic pressure. Fluid in extracellular is Interstitial fluid which returns via Lympmay result from not returned to the cell. Lymph not returned- Edema & Elephantiasis
    - - Platelets &WBC: (<1%): Blood clotting/Defense
      - RBC(45%): O2 transport. Life about 120%. Banana shaped RBC-Sickle Cell Anemia. Resides in lumen of cells. 1 heme-4 molecues of O2. RBC increase at higher altitude-Training camp in Colorado.
      - Plasma: (55%) dissolved ions, proteins.
      - Stem Cells
        
        Myeloid: Progenitor cells for RBC/Platelets/WBC. All made in the bone marrow.
    - - Artheroslcerosis: Hardening of arteries from accumulation of fatty deposits.
      - Factors: Lifestyle, Smoking, Hereditary etc. Lifestyle modification is vital.
      - LDL/HDL: Low LDL, High HDL is good. High LDL/Low HDL can lead to MI/Heart attack,Thrombus, Stroke