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Animal Form And Function (Circulatory and Gas Exchange (Gas exchange…

- - - - Regulation of blood presure
        
        Vasoconstriction- - A decrease in the diameter of blood vessels caused by contraction of smooth muscles in the vessel walls
        
        vasodilation - An increase in the diameter of blood vessels caused by relaxation of smooth muscles in vessel walls.
      - blood pressure and gravity
      - Changes in blood pressure during the cardiac cycle
        
        Pulse - The rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat.
        
        Diastolic pressure - Blood pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are relaxed.
        
        Systolic pressure - Blood pressure in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles.
    - - Lymph - The colorless fluid, derived from interstitial fluid, in the lymphatic system of vertebrates.
      - Lymph nodes - An organ located along a lymph vessel. Lymph nodes filter lymph and contain cells that attack viruses and bacteria.
      - Lymphatic system - A system of vessels and nodes, separate from the circulatory system, that returns fluid, proteins, and cells to the blood.
    - - Endothelium - The simple squamous layer of cells lining the lumen of blood vessels.
      - Both arteries and veins have two layers of tissue surrounding the endothelium. The outer layer is formed by connective tissue that contains and collagen. The layer next to the endothelium contains smooth muscle and more elastic fibers.
  - - - Stem cells and the replacement of cellular elements
        
        Stem cells - Any relatively unspecialized cell that can produce, during a single division, one identical daughter cell and one more specialized daughter cell that can undergo further differentiation.
        
        Erythropoietin (EPO) - A hormone that simulates the production of erythrocytes. It is secreted by the kidney when body tissues do not receive enough oxygen.
      - Blood clotting
        
        thrombus - A fibrin - containing clot that forms in a blood vessel and blocks the flow of blood.
      - Cellular Elememts
        
        Hemoglobin - An iron containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen.
        
        sickle - cell disease - A recessive inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the beta globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals.
        
        Erythrocytes - A blood cell that contains hemoglobin, which transports oxygen: also called a red blood cell/
        
        Leukocytes - A blood cell that functions in fighting infections, also called a white blood cell.
        
        Platelets - A pinched - off cytoplasmic fragment of a specialized bone marrow cell. Platelets circulate in the blood and are important in blood clotting.
      - Plasma
        
        Definition - The liquid matrix of blood in which the blood cells are suspended.
    - - Atherosclerosis , heart attacks, and stroke
        
        high density lipoproteins (HDL) - A particle in the blood made up of thousands of cholesterol molecules and other lipids bound to a protein. HDL scavenges excess cholesterol.
        
        heart attackThe damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more coronary artereis.
        
        low density lipoproteins (LDL) - A particle in thr blood made up of thousands of cholesterol molecules and other lipids bound to a protein. LDL transports cholesterol from the liver for incorporation into the cell membranes.
        
        atherosclerosis - A cardiovascular disease in which fatty deposits called plaques develop in the inner walls of the arteries, obstructing the arteries and causing them to harden.
        
        Strock - The death of nervous tissue in the brain., usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
      - Risk factors and treatment of cardiovasular disease
        
        Hypertension - A disorder in which blood pressure remains abnormally high.
  - - - Stroke Volume - The volume of blood pumped by the heart ventricles in a single contraction.
      - Atrioventricular (AV) valve - A heart valve located between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a back flow of blood when the ventricle contracts.
      - Heart rate - The frequency of heart contractions ( in beats per minute)
      - Semilunar valves - A valve located at each exit of the heart, where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle.
      - Cardiac output - The volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart.
      - Heart murmur - A hissing sound that most often results from blood squirting backwards through a leaky valve in the heart.
      - Diastole - The stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber is relaxed and fills with blood.
      - Cardiac cycle - The alternating contractions and relations of the heart.
    - - Electrocardiogram (ECG) - a record of the electrical impulses that travel through heart muscles during the cardiac cycle.
      - atrioventricular (AV) node - A region of specialized heart muscle tissue between the left and right atria where electrical impulses are delayed for about 0.1 seconds before spreading to both ventricles and causing them to contact.
      - Sinoatrial (SA) node - A region in the right atrium of the heart that sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contact, the pacemaker. ( temperature, hormones, and movement all affect the pacemaker)
    - - Picture of mammalian circulatory system
  - - - Ventilation - The flow of air or water over a respiratory surface
      - countercurrent exchange - The exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions. For example, blood in a fish gill flows in the direction of water passing over the gill, maximizing diffusion of oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood.
    - - Tracheal system - In insects, a system of branched, air - filled tubes that extends throughout the boy and carries oxygen directly to cells.
    - - Gas exchange - The uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide tot eh environment.
      - Partial pressure - The pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gasses ( for instance, the pressure exerted by oxygen in air.)
    - - Trachea - The portion of the respiratory tract that passes from the larynx to the bronchi; also called the windpipe.
      - Bronchi - One of a pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs.
      - Larynx - The portion of the respiratory tract containing the vocal cords, also called the voice box.
      - Bronchioles - A fine branch of the bronchi that transports air to alveoli.
      - Alveoli - One of the dead - end air sacs where gas exchange occurs in a mammalian lung.
      - Surfactant - A substance secreted by alveoli that decreases surface tension in the fluid that coats the alveoli.
      - Lungs - An infolded respiratory surfaces of a terrestrial vertebrate, land snails, or spiders, that connects to the atmosphere by narrow tubes.
  - - - Open Circulatory System - A circulatory system in which fluid called hemolymph bathes the tissue and organs directly and there is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the interstitial fluid.
      - Hemolymph - In invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes the tissue.
      - Heart - A muscular pump that uses metabolic energy to elevate the hydrostatic pressure of the circulatory fluid (blood or hemplymph). The fluid then flows down a pressure gradient through the body and eventually returns to the heart.
      - Closed Circulatory System - A circulatory system in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid.
      - Blood - a connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended.
      - A circulatory system has three basic components - a circulatory fluid, a set of interconnecting vessels, and a muscular pump.
    - - Single Circulation - The blood passes through the heart once in each complete circuit through the body.
      - Double Circulation In animals with double circulation, the pumps for the two circuits are combined into a single organ, the heart. Double circulation provides a vigorous flow of blood to the brain, muscles, and other organs because the heart repressurizes the blood destined for these tissues after it passes through the capillary beds of the lungs or skin.
      - Terms
        
        Capillary Beds - A network of capillaries in a tissue or organ.
        
        Venules - A vessel that conveys blood between a capillary bed and a vein.
        
        Capillaries - A microscopic blood vessel that penetrates the tissues and consists of a single layer of endothelial cells that allows exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid.
        
        Veins - In animals, a vessel that carries blood towards the heart.
        
        Arterioles - A vessel that conveys blood between an artery and a capillary bed.
        
        Atria - A chamber of the vertebrate hear that receives blood from the veins and transfers blood to a ventricle.
        
        Arteries - Vessels that carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.
        
        Venticles - A heart chamber that pumps blood out the heart.
        
        Cardiovascular System - A closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries, capillaries, and veins. The system is characteristic of vertebrates.
      - Evolution Variation in Double Circulation - Frogs and other amphibians have a heart with three chambers. Birds and mammals only have a two chambered heart.
    - - Gastrovascular Cavities
        
        Definition: A central cavity with a single opening in the body of certain animals that functions in both the digestion and distribution of nutrients.
        
        This includes cnidarians and flatworms
      - The molecular trade that an animal carries out with its environment involve gaining oxygen and nutrients while shedding Carbon Dioxide and other waste products must involve every cell in the body.
  - - - Tidal volume - The volume of air a mammal inhales and exhale with each breath.
      - Vital capacity - The maximum volume of air that a mammal can inhale and exhale with each breath.
      - Diaphragm - A sheet of muscle that forms that bottom wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls air into the lungs.
      - residual volume - The amount of air that remains in the lungs after forceful exhalation.
      - Negative pressure breathing - A breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs.
    - - Breathing - Ventilation of the lungs through alternating inhalation exhalation.
      - Positive pressure breathing - A breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs.
  - - - Respiratory pigments - A protein that transports oxygen and the hemolymph.
      - Bohr Shift - A lowing of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, caused by a drop in pH. It facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the vicinity of active tissue.
    - - Myoglobin - Am oxygen storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.
- - - - Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules - A host protein that function in antigen presentation. Foreign MHC molecules on translated tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant.
      - Antigen presentation - A substance that elicits an immune response by binding to receptor of B or T cells.
    - - memory cells - One of a clone long - lived lymphocytes, formed during the primary immune response, that remains in a lymphoid organ until activated by exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory cells mount the secondary immune response.
      - Clonal selection - The process by which an antigen selective binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptor specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector the simulation antigen.
      - Plasma cells - The antibody - secreting effector cell of humoral immunity. Plasma cells arise from antigen- stimulated B cells.
      - Primary immune response - The initial adaptive immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag about 10 - 17 days.
      - Effector cells - A lymphocytes that has undergone clonal selection and is capable of mediating and adaptive immune response.
      - Secondary immune response - The adaptive immune response elicited on second or subsequent exposure to a particular antigen. The secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer duration than the primary immune response.
    - - Light chains - One of the two types of polypeptides chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consist of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen binding site, and a constant region.
      - Antibody - A protein secreted by plasma cells that bind to a particular antigen; also called immunoglobulin. All antibodies have the same Y shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains.
      - Heavy chains - One of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor ; consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen binding site, and a constant region.
    - - T cells - The class of lymphocytes that mature in the thymus, they include both effector cells for the cells for the cell - mediated immune response and helper cells required for both branches of adaptive immunity.
      - B cells - The lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow and become effector cells for the humoral immune response.
      - Thymus - A small organ in the thoracic cavity of vertebrates where maturation of T cell is completed.
      - Antigen - A substance that elicits an immune response by binding to receptors of B and T cells.
      - Lymphocytes - An informal name for a member of the phylum Lycophyta, which includes club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts.
      - Antigen receptor - The general term for a surface protein, located on B cells and T cells, that binds to antigens, initiated adaptive immune response. The antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors, and the antigen receptor on T cells are called T cell receptors.
      - Epitope - A small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds.
  - - - Natural killer cells - A type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus - infected cells as part of innate immunity.
      - Interferons - A protein that has antiviral or immune regulatory function. Interferon - alpha and interferon beta, secreted by virus - infected cells, help nearby cells resist viral infection ; interferon - y, secreted by T cells, help activated macrophages.
      - Dendritic cells - An antigen - presenting cell , located mainly in lymphatic tissues and skin, that is particularly efficient in presenting antigens to helper T cells, thereby initiating a primary immune response.
      - Complement system m- A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens.
      - Macrophages - A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen - presenting cell.
      - Inflammatory response - An innate immune defense triggered by physical injury or infection of tissue involving the release of substances that promote swelling, enhancing that infiltration of white blood cells, and aid in tissue repair and destruction of invading pathogens.
      - Neutrophils - The most abundant type of white blood cell. Nuetrophils are phagocytic and tend to self - destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few day.
      - Histamine - A substance released by mast cells that cause blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable in inflammatory and allergic responses.
      - Toll - like receptor (TLR) - A membrane receptor on a phagocytic white blood cell that recognizes fragments of molecules common to a set of pathogens.
      - Mast cells - A vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules that trigger inflammation in response to infection and in allergic reaction.
    - - Lysozyme - an enzyme that destroys bacterial cell walls; in mammals, it is found in sweat , tears, and saliva.
      - Phagocytosis - a type of endocytosis in which large particulates substances or small organisms are taken up by a cell. It is carried out by some protists and by certain immune cells of animals.
    - - Immune - An organism's system of defenses against agent that causes disease.
      - Innate immunity - A form of defense common to all animals that is active immediately upon exposure to a pathogen and that is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered previously.
      - Pathogen - an organism or virus that causes disease.
      - Adaptive immunity - A vertebrate - specific defense that is mediated by beta lymphocytes and t lymphocytes and that exhibits specificity, memory, and self - non self recognition ; also called acquired immunity.
- - - - Metanephridia - An excretory organ found in many invertebrates that typically consist of tubules connecting ciliated internal opening to external openings.
      - Malpighian tubules - A unique excretory organ of insects that empties into the digestive tract, removes nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph, and functions in osmoregualtion.
      - Protonephridia An excretory system, such as the flame bulb system of flatworms, consisting of a network of tubules lacking internal opening.
    - - Kidney Structure
        
        Renal medulla - The inner portion of the verterates kidney
        
        Renal pelvis - The funnel - shaped chamber that receives processed filtrate from the vertebrates kidney's collecting ducts and is drained by the ureter.
        
        Renal Cortex - The outer portion of the vertebrates kidney
      - Nephron Types
        
        Cortical nephrons -
        
        Juxtamedullary nephrons - In mammals and birds, a nephron with a loop a henle that extends far into the renal medulla.
        
        Nephrons - the tubular exretory unit of the vertebrate kidney
      - Excretory Organs
        
        Ureter - A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
        
        Urinary bladderm- The pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination.
        
        Kidneys - one of a pair of excretory organs where blood filtrate is formed and processed into urine.
        
        Urethra - A tube that releases urine from the mammalian body near the vagina in females and through the penis in males, also serves in males as the exit tube for the reproductive system.
      - Nephron Organization
        
        proximal tubules - In the vertebrates kidney's, the portion of a nephron immediately down steam from Bowmen's capsules that conveys and help refine filtrate.
        
        loop of henle - The hairpin turn, with a descending and ascending limb, between the proximal and distal tubules of the vertebrates kidney; functions in water and salt reabsorbtion.
        
        Bowman's capsules - A cup - shaped receptacle in the vertebrate kidney that is the initial, expanded segment of the nephron, where filtrate enters from the blood.
        
        distal tubule - In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron that helps refine filtrate and empties it into a collecting duct.
        
        Glomerulus - A ball of capillaries surrounding by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
        
        collecting duct The location location in the kidney where processed filtrate, called urine, is collected from the renal tubules.
        
        peritubular capillaries - One of the tiny blood vessels that form a network surrounding the proximal and distal tubules in the kidney.
        
        vasa recta - The capillary system system in the kidney that serves the loop of Henle.
    - - Secretion The active transport of wastes and certain other solutes from the body fluid into the filtrate in an excretory system.
      - Filtrate- Cell - free fluid extracted from the body fluid by the excretory system.
      - Reabsorption - In excretory systems, the recovery of solutes and water from filtrate.
      - Filtration - In excretory system, the extraction of water and small solutes, including metabolic wastes, from the body fluid.
  - - - 4) Distal Tubule
      - 5) Collecting duct
      - 3) Ascending limb of the loop of Henle
      - 2) Descending limb of the loop of Henle
      - 1) Proximal tubule -
  - - - ammonia - A small toxic molecule produced by nitrogen fixation or as a metabolic waste products of proteins and nucleic acid metabolism.
      - urea - A soluble nitrogenous waste produced in the liver by a metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide.
      - Uric acid - A product of protein and purine metabolism and the major nitrogenous waste product pf insects, land snails, and many reptiles. Uric acid is relatively nontoxic and largely insoluble in water.
  - - - Osmoregulator - Regulation of solution contrations and water balance by a cell or organism.
      - anhydrobiosis A dormant state involving loss of almost all body water.
      - Osmoconformor - An animal that is isoosmotic with its environment.
    - - Excretion - The disposal of nitrogen - containing metabolites and other waste products.
      - Osmolarity Solution concentration expressed as morality.
      - Osmoregulation - Regulation of solute concentrated and water balance by a cell or organism