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THEORY (Critical Perspectives (Critical of What: rational and Postivist…

- - - - It relies on the assumptions that actors (MS gov, voters, MEP) will act rationally in response ot this structure of costs and beliefs and seek to maximise their utility while minimising costs.
    - - Path dependency: refers to the tendency for institutional design to become locked in over time. It also highlights that sometimes the development of institutions overtime can lead to unintended consequences.
  - - - Rhodos model: a policy network is a set of resource dependent organisations, meaning that each of the groups that makes up the policy networks needs something that the other have to fulfils own objectives.
    - - the nature of the networks involved in policy making- how rightly or loosely structured they are- can effect the extent to which external actors and external pressures affect policy outcomes. The policy network approach is useful for understanding policy-making at its early stages of formulating policy opinions what Petterson calls the 'Sub-systematic' change.
    - - Much of this work on the EU draw on Kingdon's classic study in which he identified three separate processes or 'streams'-of problems, policies, and politics- that develop largely in isolation from each other, but which must ultimately come together for significant policy change to occur
        
        Problems can rise up the political agenda through a high profile event or crisis(i.e. economic recession), or through a shift in respected indicators(on climate change)
        
        Policies generally emerge away from the political spotlight through the exchanges of 'experts', such as academics, staticians, and cicil servants. Ideas in this stream may float around for years before finding their moment-often after a softening up of policy makers has taken place
        
        Political processes, such as elections, leadership changes, and shifts in public opinion, also shape the agenda
- - - - Prevent war between states by taking the routine functional tasks out of the hands of national governments and giving them over to international agencies. World government would limit freedoms, and regional federations would reproduce on a larger scale the conditions that produced wars between states. The aim was to achieve peace.
      - creation of multiple agencies at regional and international level to regulate technical aspects of life.
        
        Creating functional agencies was a way of combating nationalism because it both shifted power away from the state in small areas and created interdependencies among states.
      - Mitrany did not believe in the creation of a single supranational government
    - - European federalism attracted strong support among Resistance groups in war-time Europe.
      - Spinelli advocated a 'constitutional break' at the end of the war to supersede the system of sovereign states with a federal constitution for Europe
        
        solution: create a single federal state in Europe united by a federal constitution. This would shift political power to single European government
    - - The Schuman Plan, argued for a European- wide economy
  - - - European integrations is a process that, once started, would undermine the sovereignty of states beyond the expectations of governments.
      - Agues that states are not unified actors, but that national interests are determined through a pluralistic process in which governments interact with organised interests. Organised interests were also seen to be important trasnational actors
        
        international activities of state where the outcome of a political process in which government's decisions were influential by pressures from various interest groups
        
        Expects nationally based interest groups to make contact with similar groups in other countries (transnationalism), and departments of states to forge links with their counters parts in other states (transgovernmentalism)
      - Spillover: functional spillover, political spillover, and cultivated spillover would lead to the process of European integration to run out of control of national governments.
        
        it refers to a situation in which a given actor, related to a specific goal, creates a situation in which the original goal can be assured only by taking further actions, when in turn create a further condition and a need for more action
        
        Functional: argued that modern industrial economies were made up for interconnected pats, which you cant isolate from each other. Refers to integration resulting from interconnectedness of economies, with the result that integration in one area can lead for integration in a closely related areas
        Political: refers to the gradual transfer of loyalties toward the European level among political elites, and interest groups who operate at European level. This increases their support for integration leading to pressure on integration
        Cultivated: refers to the Commission's role in fostering European level interest groups and political elites
    - - Hoffman. Argued that neofunctionalists had made three mistakes: 1. regional integration was not a self-contained process, but was influenced by a wider international context
        
        Governments were uniquely powerful actors because they possessed formal soverignty and democratic legitimacy
        
        Integration in low- politics sectors would not necessarily spill over into high-politics sectors
        
        According to Hoffman, governments had much more anatomy, and therefore the integration process remained essentially intergovernmental
    - - Moravcsik. Incorporated the neofunctionalist insight that national interests are defined as part of domestic pluralist political process; within this domestic process, economic interests were seen to be dominant
        
        M proposed a two-level analysis/two level game of EU bargaining, in which governments' preferences were determined at the domestic level and were then used as the basis for intergovernmental negotiations at the European level. He denied the importance of supranational actors as independent actors in EU decision making and insisted that governments remained in control of the process of European integration.
        
        The competing economic interests are more important than partisan interest or secuirty concenr when it comes to defining the national interests.
        The primary determinant of the preferences of a gov. was the balance between economic interests iwhtin the domestic arena.
        national gov. believe that supranational organisations can best enforce and implement the policy decisions negotiated by national governments
    - - was located in neofunctionalism, but also drew on transactionalism and new institutionalism.
      - Stone and Sandholtz argued the the EU should be studied not as one international regime, but as a series of regimes for different policy sectors, and that increased transactions across national boundaries would create a supranational society that favoured the creation of supranational rules to govern its behaviour.
        
        Three key elements:
        I. the development of transnational society
        II. The role of supranational organisations
        III. A focus on European rule-making to resolve what they called 'international policy externalities'
      - There is arise of these transaction that cross national border. National business actors favour supranational regulation of their industries because it allows them to operate in more markets under a single set of rules. To achieve this, they form alliances with the Commission to push for creation of rules at European level in certain policy sectors
- - - - Legitimacy three sources by Beetham and Lord: Performance(output legitimacy), Identity, Democracy
        
        Scharpf is associated with the distinction between input and put legitimacy. input legitimacy: voting, interest rep.representation and participation