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Older Adult (Nervous system/Cognition (Pathologies (Not part of the normal…

- - - - Neuron degeneration, compression of brain tissue, atherosclerosis of cerebral vessels, and brain trauma.
    - - Loss of neurons and the presence of two main microscopic neuropathological hallmarks: extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles
    - - Acute confusional state arise from disruption of a widely distributed neural network involving the reticular activating system of the upper brainstem and its projections into the thalamus, basal ganglion, and specific association areas of the cortex and limbic areas.
    - - Unknown. Several gene mutations have been identified that influence nerve function in Parkinson Disease
    - - Caused by a temporary reduction or cessation of cerebral blood flow in a specific neurovascular distribution as a result of partial or total occlusion.
    - - When an area of the brain loses its blood supply because of vascular occlusion.
    - - Result of thickening and hardening of the walls of the arteries in the brain
    - - A result of damage to your peripheral nerves
- - - - Abnormalities in lower esophageal sphincter function, esophageal motility, and gastric motility or emptying can cause GERD.
    - - Difficulty in swallowing. Can result from mechanical obstruction or the esophagus or a functional disorder that impairs esophageal motility.
    - - Protrusion of the upper part of the stomach through the diaphragm and into the thorax.
    - - Carcinoma of the esophagus includes squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.
    - - Cause of acid and pepsin concentrations in the duodenum to penetrate the mucosal barrier and cause ulceration.
    - - Gastric adenocarcinomas are associated with atrophic gastritis and H. pylori that carry the CagA gene product cytotoxin-associated vacuolating antigen A (VacA).
    - - Can occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, particularly at weak points in the colon wall, usually where arteries penetrate the tunica muscularis.
    - - Caused by multiple gene alterations and environmental interactions.
    - - Primary causes are intrinsic problems of colonic or anorectal function, whereas secondary causes are related to organic disease, systemic disease or medication.
    - - Can be caused by a simple or or functional obstruction. Simple- is mechanical blockage of the lumen by a lesion. Functional- is a failure of intestinal motility often occurring after intestinal or abdominal surgery, acute pancreatitis, or hypokalemia.
    - - Lack of mobility due to aging or spinal cord injury. Reduction of colonic mass movements and an inability to use abdominal muscles to assist in defecation.
    - - Obstruction of the lumen with stool, tumors, or foreign bodies with consequent bacterial infection. Obstructed lumen does not allow drainage of the appendix, which increases intraluminal pressure.
    - - Can arise from exocrine or endcrine cells. Most pancreatic tumors arise from metaplastic exocrine cells in the ducts and are called ductal adenocarcinomas.
    - - Acute calculus cholecystitis is an inflammation of the gallbladder that develops in the setting of an obstructed cystic or bile duct. Bacterial infection may be secondary event.
- - - - Caused by a build up of cholesterol rich deposits or plaques on the lining inside the artery.
    - - Often the result of decreased left ventricular systolic function and the associated left atrial and pulmonary venous hypertension and pulmonary venous congestion.
    - - Result of atherosclerosis
    - - Can be caused by a blockage reducing the blood flow to the brain; ischemic, or it can be caused by bleeding from a weakened blood vessel that ruptures; hemorrhagic
    - - Results from a sustained increase in peripheral resistance, an increase in circulating blood volume or both
    - - Blood pressure is abnormally low, either because of reduced blood volume or because of increased blood-vessel capacity.
    - - Cause of high cholesterol and high triglycerides in the blood.
- - - - Sensation is received by free nerve endings in the skin and transmitted via unmyelinated C fibers and myelinated A fibers to the central spinothalamic tracts
    - - Pathogenesis is unknown. Benign proliferation of cutaneous basal cells that produces flat or slightly elevated lesions that may be smooth or warty in appearance.
    - - Exact etiology is unknown, it's believed that BCCs arise from pluripotential cells in the basal layer of the epidermis or follicular structures.
    - - Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells arising in the squamous cells.
    - - The exact cause of all melanomas isn't clear, but exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or tanning lamps and beds increases your risk of developing melanoma. It arises when pigment-producing cells—known as melanocytes—mutate and become cancerous.
    - - Occurs on the lower legs as a result of chronic venous stasis and edema and is associated with varicosities, phlebitis, and vascular trauma.
    - - Caused by inadequate blood supply and resulting reperfusion injury when blood re-enters tissue. Occurs in soft tissues from unrelieved pressure. If the pressure continues unrelieved, the endothelial cells lining the capillaries become disrupted with platelet aggregation, forming microthrombi that blood flow and cause anoxic necrosis of surrounding tissues.
- - - - Gradual inflammatory destruction of thyroid tissue by infiltration of autoreactive T lymphocytes and circulating thyroid autoantibodies.
    - - Failure to produce IgA, with or without diminished production of other classes of antibody.
    - - During inflammation, arginine can be enzymatically modified into another alpha-amino acid, citrulline. This process changes the structure and function of the protein. Other proteins, like fibrin and vimentin, become citrullinated during cell death and tissue inflammation. In turn, the citrullinated proteins can be seen as antigens by the body's immune system.
    - - T-cell-mediated autoimmune injury to the small intestinal epithelial cells of genetically susceptible individuals.
    - - T and B cells cross the blood-brain barrier and recognize myelin and oligodendrocyte autoantigens, triggering inflammation and loss of oligodendrocytes.The loss of myelin disrupts nerve conduction with subsequent death of neurons and brain atrophy.
    - - Production of a large variety of antibodies against self-antigens, including nucleic acids, erythrocytes, coagulation proteins, phospholipids, lymphocytes, platelets, and ribonucleoproteins.
- - - - Type one
        
        Slowly progressive autoimmune T-cell-mediated disease that destroys beta cells of the pancreas.
      - Type two
        
        Insulin resistance refers to when cells of the body such as the muscle, liver and fat cells fail to respond to insulin, even when levels are high.
    - - Results from any cause of increased TH levels.
    - - Loss of thyroid function leads to decreased production of TH and increased secretion of TSH and TRH.
    - - Inadequate corticosteriod and minerocorticoid synthesis and elevated levels of serum ACTH.
    - - A condition of unknown cause that presents with symptoms of insulin resistance, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and systemic inflammation.
    - - Increase in cortisol and other steroid hormones.
    - - Pituitary tumor overproduces TSH, causing the thyroid gland to produce too much of the hormone thyroxine.
- - - - Clouding of the natural intraocular crystalline lens, most develop due to aging or injury changes the tissue that makes up you eye's lens.
    - - Caused by raised intraocular pressure.The raised pressure compresses and damages the optic nerve.
    - - Loss of vision results from death of visual cells due to degeneration of RPE cells, or the effects of leakage from neovascular membranes that invade the region of abnormal extracellular deposits.
    - - A hole, tear, or break in the neuronal layer allowing fluid from the vitreous cavity to seep in between and separate sensory and RPE layers
    - - Corneal epithelial defects with underlying inflammation, and soon necrosis or the corneal stroma develops.
    - - Genetically mediated metabolic bone disease that affects only the human otic capsule and ossicles. Its mode of inheritance is autosomal dominant, but penetrance and expressivity both vary.
    - - Damage to your peripheral nerves.
    - - Results from relative hypoxemia, damage to retinal blood vessels, red blood cell aggregation, and hypertension.
- - - - Initiated by a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction primarily mediated by Th2 lymphocytes whose cytokines activate mast cells, eosinophilia, leukocytosis, and enhanced B-cell IgE production.
    - - Destruction of alveoli through the breakdown of elastin within the septa by an imbalance between proteases and antiproteases, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of lung structural cells.
    - - Carcinogens along with inherited genetic predisposition to cancers, result in tumor development. Once lung cancer is initiated by these carcinogen-induced mutations, further tumor development is promoted by growth factors that alter cell growth and differentiation.
    - - Inspired irritants result in airway inflammation with infiltration of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes into the bronchial wall.
    - - Necrosis of the pulmonary tissue and formation of cavities containing necrotic debris or fluid caused by microbial infection
    - - Most often caused by deep vein thrombosis,a condition in which blood clots form in the veins deep within the body.
    - - Obstruction of the upper airway during sleep results in cyclic episodes of increasing respiratory effort and changes in intrathoracic pressures with oxygen desaturation, hypercapnia, and arousal.
- - - - Occurs when the force applied to a bone exceeds the strength of the involved bone.
    - - Centers on load-bearing areas. Advancing disease shows narrowing of the joint space attributable to cartilage loss, bone spurs, and sometimes changes in the subchondral bone.
    - - Develops when the remodeling cycle is disrupted, leading to an imbalance in the coupling process.
    - - Urate excretion by the kidney's is sluggish, which may be the result of a decrease in glomerular filtration of urate or acceleration in urate reabsorption.
    - - Caused by collagen degeneration associated with repetitive microtrauma to the plantar fascia
- - - - Menopause (permanent cessation of menses)
      - Ovaries becomes thicker and smaller
      - Less secoratory solution
      - Estrogen & progestin increase heart risks
      - Pathologies (Not part of the normal aging)
        
        Ovarian cancer
        
        Majority of ovarian cancers were thought to arise from just epithelial cells that cover the ovarian surface or line subserosal cysts. Newer evidence suggest that tumors arise from three ovarian components; 1. from the fimbriae of fallopian tubes and from deposits of endometrosis; 2. from germ cells, which are pluripotent and migrate to the ovary from the yolk sac; and 3. from stromal cells, including the sex cords, which precede endocrine changes of the postnatal ovary.
        
        Cervical cancer
        
        HPV-16 and HPV-18 are the most important risk factors for cervical disease progression and cancer
        
        Breast cancer
        
        Malignant tumor that starts in the cells of the breast. There are several factors that can increase the risk of getting breast cancer; damage to the DNA and genetic mutations can lead to breast cancer have been experimentally linked to estrogen
        
        Endometrial cancer
        
        Associated with prolonged estrogenic stimulation of the endometrium.
    - - Pathologies (Not part of the normal aging)
        
        BPH
        
        A proliferative process of the cellular elements of the prostate, an enlarged prostate, or the voiding dysfunction resulting from prostatic enlargement and bladder outlet obstruction. With aging, circulating androgens are associated with BPH and enlargement.
        
        Penile cancer
        
        Exact cause is unknown, HPV appears to play a major role. In situ carcinoma may progress to invasive lesions.
        
        Cancer of the testis
        
        90% of testicular cancers are germ cell tumors, arising from the male gametes.Testicular tumors also can arise from specialized cells of the gonadal stroma.
        
        Cancer of the prostate
        
        Happens when the rates of cell division and cell death are no longer equal, leading to uncontrolled tumor growth.
      - Decrease sperm count
      - Erectile dysfunction
        
        Failure of adequate venous occlusion has been proposed as one of the most common causes of vasculogenic impotence. May result from the presence or development of large venous channels draining the corpora cavernosa.
      - Shrinkage of testes
      - Reduced muscle mass, strength and stamnia
      - Andropause (testosterone levels decrease)
    - - Urinary incontinence
        
        Organic causes account for majority of causes and include UTI's; neurologic disturbances; congenital defects of the meatus, urethra, or bladder neck; and allergies.
      - Bladder cancer
        
        Greater among people who smoke or are exposed to metabolites of aniline dyes, high levels of arsenic in drinking water, heavy consumption of phenacetin, or have uroepithelial schistosomiasis infection.
      - Renal calculi
        
        Results from the growth of crystals into stones. Crystals form in urine that is supersaturated with particular salts such as calcium oxalate, sodium urate, magnesium ammonium phosphate, or cystine.
      - Glomerulonephritis
        
        Epithelial or podocyte layer of the glomerular capillary membrane is disturbed with loss of negative charges and changes in membrane permeability; the mesangial matrix may be expanded or the basement membrane thickened.
      - CKD
        
        Kidney's inability to eliminate waste products and maintain fluid and electrolyte balances.
      - Kidney failure #
        
        Result of minimal or absent renal function.
      - Urinary tract infections #
        
        Bacteria, ,mainly E. coli,ascends the urethra.