Large enough to contain the whole population as well as many visitors from nearby towns

Number of seats was being increased when city was destroyed (AD 79)

Slaves, condemned criminals, prisoners of war or free volunteers/poor

Defeated gladiator appealed to spectators for mercy by raising left arm

Spectators indicated wishes by turning thumbs up (likely "kill him") or down

Final decision made by sponsor or emperor - showing his people that he had power over life/death & so they should fear & respect him

Not unusual for life to be spared, especially if he were well-known & had many victories to his name

Depicted in a wall-painting (in the private house of Actius Anicetus in Pompeii, who may have been a gladiator) & descried by Tacitus (Roman historian)

Fight took place between gangs of rival fans during a gladiatorial contest

Travelling fans fom Nuceria started a fight with the home crowd (Pomepians)

Began inside stadium after Nucerians lost their hero in a fight with a Pompeian gladiator

Pomepian crowd mocked Nucerians, who responded with a hail of stones

"As a result, most of the families of Nuceria lost a father or a son." (Tacitus)

Roman Senate forbade Pompeians to gladiatorial such shows for 10 years

However, ban may have been lifted earlier (perhaps AD 62) - Emperor's wife (Poppaea) came from a pominent Pomepian family (wealthy & influential in the area) & some think she asked Nero to allow games to continue

Such a violent fight that it was brought to the attention of the authorities in Rome

Built around 80 BCE (earliest known permanent stone amphitheatre in Italy)

Central symbol of Roman religion was cutting throat of an animal

Reflection of war as a serious business of maintaining an empire

When a rich man died, it was sympathetic to kill people at the graveside

Later could be used to celebrate a public holiday or Roman military victory - Emperors made it the biggest spectacle

Stone reliefs show how gladiators were armed & protected

Some illustrations show gladiators with a referee watching to see fair play (didn't prevent bad injuries/death)

Crowd liked to watch two evenly-matched gladiators using different fighting styles & weapons

Crocodiles, giraffes, leopards, lions, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ostriches, tigers, antelopes, deer, bears, wild goats, dogs, camels

Not uncommon for hundreds to die in a single day

Some animal species seem to have been completely wiped out, e.g. hippos in Egypt & lions in the Middle East

Some thoughtful Romans found the slaughter of gentile animals (e.g. elephant) troubling - Cicero writes about this

Livy (Roman historian) wrote about the first know gladiatorial games - held in 310 BCE by the Campanians, symbolised the re-enactment of their military success over the Samnites

First Roman gladiatorial games were held in 246 BCE by Marcus & Decimus Brutus in honour of their father (Junius Brutus) - as a "munus" or funeral gift for the dead

Each gladiator was allowed to fight in the armour & with the weapons that best suited him

Didn't wear Roman military armour as this would send out the wrong political signal

Used weapons of non-Roman people - playing the role of Rome's enemies

Freed if they survived 3-5 years of combat or earned freedom

When one opponent in a contest was wounded, crowd would shout "habet, hoc habet" (he has had it)

If decision was death, defeated would ceremoniously grasp thigh of conqueror, who slayed loser by stabbing his sword into his neck

Dead body removed by costumed attendants - one dressed as the ferry man Charon & the other as Mercury

Charon struck body with a hammer & Mercury poked bpdy with a hot iron disguised as his wand to ensure loser was dead

Winner received a symbol of their victory, e.g. golden bowl, crown or gold coin, along with a plam leaf symbolising victory

In the afternoon was the main event /highlight of the day - gladiatorial duels

Not all animals were ferocious - some were trained to perform tricks

By the end, all animals & occasionally a few hunters had been killed

Bodies were dragged out from sandy floor of arena to be disposed of

One-on-one fight, usually against a bear or lion

Although a gladiator's social status was barely better than a slave, many citizens, knight & even Emperors fought in the arena because of their love of the sport & desire for adoriation

Emperor Commodus boasted that he had fought in over 1,000 gladiatorial duels

Held 50,000 people

Enormous awning could be used to cover spectators & keep them cool

Emperor had his own imperial box (pulvinar) - richly decorated tunnel led to Imperial Palace

Armour found at Pompeii had traces of fabrics embroidered with gold thread

Teams of panthers drawing chariots, elephants kneeling before royal box, tigers licking the hand of their trainer who had just been whipping them

Different types of animals were set against each other - pack of dogs pitted against a lion, a bear vs a buffalo, an elephant vs a rhino

Staged hunts - greenery placed in arena & men sent in to hunt, armed with spears, torches, bows, lances & daggers, often accompanied by pack of houns

Emperor Commodus personally decapitated 100 ostriches in one session

Strong political statement - rulers of Roman empire showing that the empire had control over fiercest beasts of natural world & had power in far-flung parts of the world (Asia/Europe/Afica)

Slaves of aristocratic men were expected to fight to the death in his honour

Lightly armed retiarius (skill & quickness of movement) vs heavier gladiator (brute force)

If the trainers felt the gladiators weren't fighting hard enough, they would whip them until they improved

Some returned because they needed the money or missed the excitement

Secutor specifically trained to fight retiarius - secutor means 'chaser', likely because the retiarius used running as one of his tactics

Secutor had to win quickly as would easily tire in heavy armour & shortage of oxygen under helmet

First seating level (podium) there were separate boxes for the Emperor, Vestal Virgins & senators

Beneath arena was a network of tunnels, cages & lifts where criminals & animals were held before sent into arena

Slaves worked hefe to provide special effects & send up animals

Linked by tunnels to various points outside so animals weren't seen before the games

A 'sea battle' was held at opening games, suggesting that it didn't always have a hypogeum

Morning show might begin with mimic gladiatorial battle - combatants fought with blunted weapons

Inscription suggests that Quinctius Valgus & Marcius Porcius funded its construction (the same two men credited with the construction of the Odeon in Pompeii)

Central arena dug out & earth piled up to form banked seating

In AD 62, massive earthquake wrecked large parts of amphitheatre that had to be rebuilt - evidence that certain sections still under repair at time of Vesuvius' eruption

Main banks of seating accessed by stairs on outside of main wall

Seating closest to arena accessed through archways at ground level

Built so that it took only 15 mins to fill & 5-10 mins to evacuate

Triumphant & fallen gladiators

Orchestra accompanying gladiatorial combat