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The Amphitheatre (Gladiators (Popularity (Most successful were favourites…
The Amphitheatre
Gladiators
Slaves, condemned criminals, prisoners of war or free volunteers/poor
Popularity
Most successful were favourites with crowd & received gifts of money from admirers
Popular Pompeian gladiator described as "suspirium puellarum" (girls' heart-throb)
If he survived long enough or showed great skill & courage, he would be awarded the wooden sword - high honour & meant he would not have to fight again
Winning was a chance of fame - brought public recognition, popularity & wealth (worth the danger)
Death in the amphitheatre before a huge crowd offered a brief moment of glory
Graffiti - e.g. simple drawings scracthed by fans on walls
Local heroes - well-known gladiators with own loyal sections of public
Qualities most admired by public were bravery & fighting prowess
Like wrestlers/football stars nowadays - by some they were idolised & attractions for young women, by others they were despised & thought of as just slaves/criminals
Could earn idolised status of a hero
Although a gladiator's social status was barely better than a slave, many citizens, knight & even Emperors fought in the arena because of their love of the sport & desire for adoriation
Women especially idolised gladiators, sometimes to the dismay of their husbands
Faustina (mother of Commodus) is said to have preferred the gladiator Martianus over her husband (Marcus Aurelius)
Juvenal wrote about Eppia (a senator's wife) who is said to have thought so highly of gladiators that she preferred them to her children, country, sister & husband
While there is a great deal of glamour attached to gladiators, they also suffered horrific pain
Women especially admired them & saw them as sex symbols - even buying small bottles of their sweat as keepsakes
Types
Samnite
Crested helmet with visor
Breastplate
Greave (shin-pad) on left leg
Large shield
Short sword
Thracian
Ocrea (leather/metal leg guard) on both legs
Small square shield
Full visored helmet or open faced helmet with wide brim
Curved Thracian sword with angled bend in blade
Secutor
Name from the word for "pursuer"
Virtually naked & bald
Large oval or rectangular shield
Sword or dagger
Ocrea on left leg
Manicae (leather bands at elbow & wrists)
Round or high-visored helmet
Loincloth & wide leather belt
Plain helmet with only 2 small eye-holes to protect from a trident thrust
Retiarius
Symbolised the fisherman
Loin cloth
(subligaculum)
Metal shoulder-piece
(galerus)
on left arm
Net
(iaculum)
Dagger
Trident or tunny-fish harpoon
(fascina)
One variation was the Laquearii - lasso, instead of net
Bare head
Most distinct
Retiarius means 'net fighter'
Lightest armed & only one with uncovered head/face
More mobile, but vulnerable to serious wounds
Had to avoid fighting at close quarters, instead trying to cast his net & then thrust his trident
Gladiatrix
Some evidence that female gladiators may have existed
Myrmillo
Same armour as secutor (except helmet)
Upper part of body was bare
Loin cloth & wide leather belt
Greave on left leg
Arm guard on right arm
Curved rectangular shield (like Roman soldier)
Slashing sword (like a dagger)
Crested helmet, decorated with a fish
Common pairings
Crowd liked to watch two evenly-matched gladiators using different fighting styles & weapons
Net & trident vs. sword & shield
Lightly armed retiarius (skill & quickness of movement) vs heavier gladiator (brute force)
Secutor specifically trained to fight retiarius - secutor means 'chaser', likely because the retiarius used running as one of his tactics
Secutor had to win quickly as would easily tire in heavy armour & shortage of oxygen under helmet
Death
Didn't die in every fight
Expensive to train, difficult to replace quickly & had fans
Barracks
Lived & trained in a school/barracks -
"ludi gladiatorii"
(gladiator schools)
Under supervision of a professional trainer
(lanista)
palaestra = gladiator's barracks & exercise grounds
Remains of iron stocks found in detention room of barracks in Pompeii
Schools originally owned by private citizens
Later taken ove by imperial state to prevent build up of a private army
Weapons & armour
Weapons: war chain, net, trident, dagger, lasso
Each gladiator was allowed to fight in the armour & with the weapons that best suited him
Didn't wear Roman military armour as this would send out the wrong political signal
Used weapons of non-Roman people - playing the role of Rome's enemies
Armour found at Pompeii had traces of fabrics embroidered with gold thread
Mosaic
Triumphant & fallen gladiators
Orchestra accompanying gladiatorial combat
Payment/freedom
Paid each time they fought
Freed if they survived 3-5 years of combat or earned freedom
Given wooden sword to symbolise freedom
Some returned because they needed the money or missed the excitement
Although a gladiator's social status was barely better than a slave, many citizens, knight & even Emperors fought in the arena because of their love of the sport & desire for adoriation
Emperor Commodus boasted that he had fought in over 1,000 gladiatorial duels
Chosen for toughness & physique
Training
Trained like athletes & learnt how to use various weapons
Received medical attention
Had 3 meals a day
Took years to train a good gladiator
Upon beginning, had to swear oath:
"We solemnly swear to obey our trainer in everything. To endure burning, imprisonment, flogging & even death by the sword."
Fought with wooden swords - no fatal injuries
Building
Large oval building
No roof - retractable awning protected spectators from sun
Rising tiers of seating surrounding an arena
Advertisement
"Twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens perpetual priest of Nero, son of the Emperor, and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Valens his son, will fight at Pompeii April 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. There will be a big hunt and awnings. Aemilius Celer wrote this by the light of the moon."
Seating
Seated according to social status
ima cavea
(walled off) = powerful/prominent/important at front, senators, other VIPs
(equites)
summa cavea
= very top rows for lowest level of society, women, children & slaves, if there were enough spare seats
media cavea
= open to general public, mostly reserved for men, wealthier Romans, then soldiers, then common citizens
President of the games sat in the boxes above the entrances for the gladiators
Seats accessed via
'vomitoria'
amphitheatrum = "theatre all around"
Complex of corridors, rooms & spaces for scenery/animals/gladiators/prisoners below
(hypogeum)
Special precautions taken to prevent animals from escaping, e.g. erection of barriers & digging of ditches
"theatre of death"
"I happened to call in at a midday show hoping for some light & witty enterainment. I was bitterly disappointed. It was really mere butchery. The morning's show was merciful compared to it. Then men were thrown to lions & to bears: but at midday to the audience. ... Unhappy that I am, how have I deserved that I must look on such a scene as this?"
- Seneca, Letters 7.3ff
Crowd wanted & came for blood
"Man, an object of reverence in the eyes of men, is now slaughtered for jest and sport ... and it is a satisfying spectacle to see a man made a corpse."
- Seneca, Moral Letters to Lucilius, letter 95
Acculturated to violence
"There are the peculiar and characteristic vices of this metropolis of ours, taken on, it seems to me, almost in the mother's womb - the passion for play actors and the mania for gladiatorial shows and horse-racing."
- Tacitus
Ground covered in sand to soak up blood of victims
Colosseum in Rome
One of the greatest buildings of the ancient world
Held 50,000 people
80 separate entrances - 4 reserved for VIPs
Enormous awning could be used to cover spectators & keep them cool
Emperor had his own imperial box
(pulvinar)
- richly decorated tunnel led to Imperial Palace
First seating level (podium) there were separate boxes for the Emperor, Vestal Virgins & senators
Hypogeum
Beneath arena was a network of tunnels, cages & lifts where criminals & animals were held before sent into arena
Slaves worked hefe to provide special effects & send up animals
Linked by tunnels to various points outside so animals weren't seen before the games
A 'sea battle' was held at opening games, suggesting that it didn't always have a hypogeum
Built so that it took only 15 mins to fill & 5-10 mins to evacuate
Pictures
Pompeii
Seating
Large enough to contain the whole population as well as many visitors from nearby towns
Held 20,000 people
Number of seats was being increased when city was destroyed (AD 79)
Main banks of seating accessed by stairs on outside of main wall
Seating closest to arena accessed through archways at ground level
Riot
AD 59
Depicted in a wall-painting (in the private house of Actius Anicetus in Pompeii, who may have been a gladiator) & descried by Tacitus (Roman historian)
Fight took place between gangs of rival fans during a gladiatorial contest
Travelling fans fom Nuceria started a fight with the home crowd (Pomepians)
Began inside stadium after Nucerians lost their hero in a fight with a Pompeian gladiator
Pomepian crowd mocked Nucerians, who responded with a hail of stones
Fighting spread into palaestra & then surrounding streets
Stallholders were attacked, women & children fled
After around an hour of violent battle, the Pomepians won
"As a result, most of the families of Nuceria lost a father or a son."
(Tacitus)
Roman Senate forbade Pompeians to gladiatorial such shows for 10 years
However, ban may have been lifted earlier (perhaps AD 62) - Emperor's wife (Poppaea) came from a pominent Pomepian family (wealthy & influential in the area) & some think she asked Nero to allow games to continue
Livineius & other encouragers were sent into exile
Such a violent fight that it was brought to the attention of the authorities in Rome
Wall painting
Built around 80 BCE (earliest known permanent stone amphitheatre in Italy)
Inscription suggests that Quinctius Valgus & Marcius Porcius funded its construction (the same two men credited with the construction of the Odeon in Pompeii)
Central arena dug out & earth piled up to form banked seating
In AD 62, massive earthquake wrecked large parts of amphitheatre that had to be rebuilt - evidence that certain sections still under repair at time of Vesuvius' eruption
Pictures
Events
Gladiatorial shows
One of the most popular entertainments
End of a fight
Defeated gladiator appealed to spectators for mercy by raising left arm
Spectators indicated wishes by turning thumbs up (likely "kill him") or down
Final decision made by sponsor or emperor - showing his people that he had power over life/death & so they should fear & respect him
Fight ended with the death or surrender of one gladiator
Not unusual for life to be spared, especially if he were well-known & had many victories to his name
When one opponent in a contest was wounded, crowd would shout
"habet, hoc habet"
(he has had it)
If decision was death, defeated would ceremoniously grasp thigh of conqueror, who slayed loser by stabbing his sword into his neck
Dead body removed by costumed attendants - one dressed as the ferry man Charon & the other as Mercury
Charon struck body with a hammer & Mercury poked bpdy with a hot iron disguised as his wand to ensure loser was dead
Winner received a symbol of their victory, e.g. golden bowl, crown or gold coin, along with a plam leaf symbolising victory
Held on 10 or 12 days every year
Reflection of war
Central symbol of Roman religion was cutting throat of an animal
Used to warfare, killing, animals killing humans
Gladiatorial games were merely an extension of that
War game - way of imaging war as a leisure persuit
Reflection of war as a serious business of maintaining an empire
Origins
Funeral rite - celebration of death
When a rich man died, it was sympathetic to kill people at the graveside
Began small - 3 pairs of gladiators in 3rd century
Expanded as richer men began to get political status
Later could be used to celebrate a public holiday or Roman military victory - Emperors made it the biggest spectacle
Livy (Roman historian) wrote about the first know gladiatorial games - held in 310 BCE by the Campanians, symbolised the re-enactment of their military success over the Samnites
First Roman gladiatorial games were held in 246 BCE by Marcus & Decimus Brutus in honour of their father (Junius Brutus) - as a "munus" or funeral gift for the dead
Slaves of aristocratic men were expected to fight to the death in his honour
The fight
Stone reliefs show how gladiators were armed & protected
Some illustrations show gladiators with a referee watching to see fair play (didn't prevent bad injuries/death)
If the trainers felt the gladiators weren't fighting hard enough, they would whip them until they improved
Lasted until one was seriously wounded
Could last as long as 15 or 20 minutes
Gladiator event might begin with parade
Then their weapons were examined
Admission
Shows given by emperor or wealthy individuals - not entirely altruistic
Spectators paid no admission fee
Often ambitious magistartes who wanted to run for higher political office & hoped to gain popularity by putting on a spectacular show
Excellent opportunity for him to be seen by the people & show he shared their interests
Order
Soon after dawn, spectators would begin to take places
Trumpet blared & priests performed religious ceremony to begin games
Gladiators entered in procession, paraded around arena & saluted sponsor
Gladiators paired off to fight each other & games began
Split into three parts
In the morning, there was a wild beast show/display
In the afternoon was the main event /highlight of the day - gladiatorial duels
Gladiators dressed in gold & purple cloaks
Halted at emperor's box & said
"Hail Caesar! We who are about to die salute you."
Morning show might begin with mimic gladiatorial battle - combatants fought with blunted weapons
Gave crowd foretaste of real gladiatorial events to come later
Animal hunts & wild beast shows
Animals
Not only about killing/blood, but also seeing the exotic
Normal Romans hadn't often seen the exotic/wild animals
Crocodiles, giraffes, leopards, lions, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ostriches, tigers, antelopes, deer, bears, wild goats, dogs, camels
Size of Roman empire guaranteed a steady supply
Not uncommon for hundreds to die in a single day
When Trajan became Emperor, 9,000 were killed
Some animal species seem to have been completely wiped out, e.g. hippos in Egypt & lions in the Middle East
Some thoughtful Romans found the slaughter of gentile animals (e.g. elephant) troubling - Cicero writes about this
Not all animals were ferocious - some were trained to perform tricks
Teams of panthers drawing chariots, elephants kneeling before royal box, tigers licking the hand of their trainer who had just been whipping them
Different types of animals were set against each other - pack of dogs pitted against a lion, a bear vs a buffalo, an elephant vs a rhino
More exotic the animal the better
Emperor Commodus personally decapitated 100 ostriches in one session
Strong political statement - rulers of Roman empire showing that the empire had control over fiercest beasts of natural world & had power in far-flung parts of the world (Asia/Europe/Afica)
Venatio
Many shows offered a "venatio" - a hunt of wild animals
"Bestiae" (wild beasts) released from cages into arena
Hunted by specially trained beast-fighters ("bestiarii")
By the end, all animals & occasionally a few hunters had been killed
Bodies were dragged out from sandy floor of arena to be disposed of
One-on-one fight, usually against a bear or lion
Staged hunts - greenery placed in arena & men sent in to hunt, armed with spears, torches, bows, lances & daggers, often accompanied by pack of houns
Mosaic
Executions
Prisoners could face crucifixion, burning at the stake or being savaged to death by wild animals
("ad bestias")
"humiliores"
Execution of Roman citizens of lower status
Ancient writers suggest that during these, most respectable spectators went for lunch, instead of watching
Sometimes convicts would be tied to a stake & smeared with blood to encourage the animals
On other occasions, they were left to run free in the arena, prolonging their death & lengthening the spectacle
Style of execution was varied to please the crowds
Also scared people into behaving
"The purpose of executing criminals in public ... is that they serve as a warning to all, and because in life they did not wish to be useful citizens, the state benefits by their death."
- Seneca, On Anger 1.6.4
Hunters
Wore light clothings
Relied on a thrusting/hunting spear & their agility
