The Amphitheatre

Colosseum in Rome

Pompeii

Gladiators

Events

Gladiatorial shows

One of the most popular entertainments

Building

Large oval building

No roof - retractable awning protected spectators from sun

Rising tiers of seating surrounding an arena

Admission

Shows given by emperor or wealthy individuals - not entirely altruistic

Spectators paid no admission fee

Seating

Large enough to contain the whole population as well as many visitors from nearby towns

Held 20,000 people

Number of seats was being increased when city was destroyed (AD 79)

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"Twenty pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens perpetual priest of Nero, son of the Emperor, and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Valens his son, will fight at Pompeii April 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. There will be a big hunt and awnings. Aemilius Celer wrote this by the light of the moon."

Order

Soon after dawn, spectators would begin to take places

Trumpet blared & priests performed religious ceremony to begin games

Gladiators entered in procession, paraded around arena & saluted sponsor

Gladiators paired off to fight each other & games began

Slaves, condemned criminals, prisoners of war or free volunteers/poor

End of a fight

Defeated gladiator appealed to spectators for mercy by raising left arm

Spectators indicated wishes by turning thumbs up (likely "kill him") or down

Final decision made by sponsor or emperor - showing his people that he had power over life/death & so they should fear & respect him

Fight ended with the death or surrender of one gladiator

Not unusual for life to be spared, especially if he were well-known & had many victories to his name

Popularity

Most successful were favourites with crowd & received gifts of money from admirers

Popular Pompeian gladiator described as "suspirium puellarum" (girls' heart-throb)

If he survived long enough or showed great skill & courage, he would be awarded the wooden sword - high honour & meant he would not have to fight again

Animal hunts & wild beast shows

Hunters

Wore light clothings

Relied on a thrusting/hunting spear & their agility

Riot

AD 59

Depicted in a wall-painting (in the private house of Actius Anicetus in Pompeii, who may have been a gladiator) & descried by Tacitus (Roman historian)

Fight took place between gangs of rival fans during a gladiatorial contest

Travelling fans fom Nuceria started a fight with the home crowd (Pomepians)

Began inside stadium after Nucerians lost their hero in a fight with a Pompeian gladiator

Pomepian crowd mocked Nucerians, who responded with a hail of stones

Fighting spread into palaestra & then surrounding streets

Stallholders were attacked, women & children fled

After around an hour of violent battle, the Pomepians won

"As a result, most of the families of Nuceria lost a father or a son." (Tacitus)

Roman Senate forbade Pompeians to gladiatorial such shows for 10 years

However, ban may have been lifted earlier (perhaps AD 62) - Emperor's wife (Poppaea) came from a pominent Pomepian family (wealthy & influential in the area) & some think she asked Nero to allow games to continue

Livineius & other encouragers were sent into exile

Such a violent fight that it was brought to the attention of the authorities in Rome

Held on 10 or 12 days every year

Built around 80 BCE (earliest known permanent stone amphitheatre in Italy)

Seating

Seated according to social status

ima cavea (walled off) = powerful/prominent/important at front, senators, other VIPs (equites)

summa cavea = very top rows for lowest level of society, women, children & slaves, if there were enough spare seats

media cavea = open to general public, mostly reserved for men, wealthier Romans, then soldiers, then common citizens

President of the games sat in the boxes above the entrances for the gladiators

amphitheatrum = "theatre all around"

Complex of corridors, rooms & spaces for scenery/animals/gladiators/prisoners below (hypogeum)

Executions

Prisoners could face crucifixion, burning at the stake or being savaged to death by wild animals ("ad bestias")

Reflection of war

Central symbol of Roman religion was cutting throat of an animal

Used to warfare, killing, animals killing humans

Gladiatorial games were merely an extension of that

War game - way of imaging war as a leisure persuit

Reflection of war as a serious business of maintaining an empire

Winning was a chance of fame - brought public recognition, popularity & wealth (worth the danger)

Death in the amphitheatre before a huge crowd offered a brief moment of glory

Origins

Funeral rite - celebration of death

When a rich man died, it was sympathetic to kill people at the graveside

Began small - 3 pairs of gladiators in 3rd century

Expanded as richer men began to get political status

Later could be used to celebrate a public holiday or Roman military victory - Emperors made it the biggest spectacle

The fight

Stone reliefs show how gladiators were armed & protected

Some illustrations show gladiators with a referee watching to see fair play (didn't prevent bad injuries/death)

Types

Common pairings

Crowd liked to watch two evenly-matched gladiators using different fighting styles & weapons

Net & trident vs. sword & shield

Death

Didn't die in every fight

Expensive to train, difficult to replace quickly & had fans

Graffiti - e.g. simple drawings scracthed by fans on walls

Local heroes - well-known gladiators with own loyal sections of public

Qualities most admired by public were bravery & fighting prowess

Like wrestlers/football stars nowadays - by some they were idolised & attractions for young women, by others they were despised & thought of as just slaves/criminals

Barracks

Lived & trained in a school/barracks - "ludi gladiatorii" (gladiator schools)

Under supervision of a professional trainer (lanista)

palaestra = gladiator's barracks & exercise grounds

Remains of iron stocks found in detention room of barracks in Pompeii

Split into three parts

In the morning, there was a wild beast show/display

Animals

Not only about killing/blood, but also seeing the exotic

Normal Romans hadn't often seen the exotic/wild animals

Crocodiles, giraffes, leopards, lions, elephants, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ostriches, tigers, antelopes, deer, bears, wild goats, dogs, camels

Size of Roman empire guaranteed a steady supply

Not uncommon for hundreds to die in a single day

When Trajan became Emperor, 9,000 were killed

Some animal species seem to have been completely wiped out, e.g. hippos in Egypt & lions in the Middle East

Some thoughtful Romans found the slaughter of gentile animals (e.g. elephant) troubling - Cicero writes about this

Livy (Roman historian) wrote about the first know gladiatorial games - held in 310 BCE by the Campanians, symbolised the re-enactment of their military success over the Samnites

First Roman gladiatorial games were held in 246 BCE by Marcus & Decimus Brutus in honour of their father (Junius Brutus) - as a "munus" or funeral gift for the dead

Schools originally owned by private citizens

Later taken ove by imperial state to prevent build up of a private army

Weapons & armour

Weapons: war chain, net, trident, dagger, lasso

Samnite

Each gladiator was allowed to fight in the armour & with the weapons that best suited him

Didn't wear Roman military armour as this would send out the wrong political signal

Used weapons of non-Roman people - playing the role of Rome's enemies

Thracian

Secutor

Retiarius

Ocrea (leather/metal leg guard) on both legs

Small square shield

Full visored helmet or open faced helmet with wide brim

Curved Thracian sword with angled bend in blade

Name from the word for "pursuer"

Virtually naked & bald

Large oval or rectangular shield

Sword or dagger

Ocrea on left leg

Manicae (leather bands at elbow & wrists)

Round or high-visored helmet

Symbolised the fisherman

Loin cloth (subligaculum)

Metal shoulder-piece (galerus) on left arm

Net (iaculum)

Dagger

Trident or tunny-fish harpoon (fascina)

One variation was the Laquearii - lasso, instead of net

Payment/freedom

Paid each time they fought

Freed if they survived 3-5 years of combat or earned freedom

When one opponent in a contest was wounded, crowd would shout "habet, hoc habet" (he has had it)

If decision was death, defeated would ceremoniously grasp thigh of conqueror, who slayed loser by stabbing his sword into his neck

Dead body removed by costumed attendants - one dressed as the ferry man Charon & the other as Mercury

Charon struck body with a hammer & Mercury poked bpdy with a hot iron disguised as his wand to ensure loser was dead

Winner received a symbol of their victory, e.g. golden bowl, crown or gold coin, along with a plam leaf symbolising victory

In the afternoon was the main event /highlight of the day - gladiatorial duels

Special precautions taken to prevent animals from escaping, e.g. erection of barriers & digging of ditches

Not all animals were ferocious - some were trained to perform tricks

Venatio

Many shows offered a "venatio" - a hunt of wild animals

"Bestiae" (wild beasts) released from cages into arena

Hunted by specially trained beast-fighters ("bestiarii")

By the end, all animals & occasionally a few hunters had been killed

Bodies were dragged out from sandy floor of arena to be disposed of

One-on-one fight, usually against a bear or lion

"humiliores"

Execution of Roman citizens of lower status

Ancient writers suggest that during these, most respectable spectators went for lunch, instead of watching

Could earn idolised status of a hero

Although a gladiator's social status was barely better than a slave, many citizens, knight & even Emperors fought in the arena because of their love of the sport & desire for adoriation

Although a gladiator's social status was barely better than a slave, many citizens, knight & even Emperors fought in the arena because of their love of the sport & desire for adoriation

Emperor Commodus boasted that he had fought in over 1,000 gladiatorial duels

Women especially idolised gladiators, sometimes to the dismay of their husbands

Faustina (mother of Commodus) is said to have preferred the gladiator Martianus over her husband (Marcus Aurelius)

Juvenal wrote about Eppia (a senator's wife) who is said to have thought so highly of gladiators that she preferred them to her children, country, sister & husband

Gladiatrix

One of the greatest buildings of the ancient world

Held 50,000 people

"theatre of death"

While there is a great deal of glamour attached to gladiators, they also suffered horrific pain

80 separate entrances - 4 reserved for VIPs

Enormous awning could be used to cover spectators & keep them cool

Emperor had his own imperial box (pulvinar) - richly decorated tunnel led to Imperial Palace

Often ambitious magistartes who wanted to run for higher political office & hoped to gain popularity by putting on a spectacular show

Excellent opportunity for him to be seen by the people & show he shared their interests

Armour found at Pompeii had traces of fabrics embroidered with gold thread

Teams of panthers drawing chariots, elephants kneeling before royal box, tigers licking the hand of their trainer who had just been whipping them

Different types of animals were set against each other - pack of dogs pitted against a lion, a bear vs a buffalo, an elephant vs a rhino

Staged hunts - greenery placed in arena & men sent in to hunt, armed with spears, torches, bows, lances & daggers, often accompanied by pack of houns

More exotic the animal the better

Emperor Commodus personally decapitated 100 ostriches in one session

Strong political statement - rulers of Roman empire showing that the empire had control over fiercest beasts of natural world & had power in far-flung parts of the world (Asia/Europe/Afica)

Sometimes convicts would be tied to a stake & smeared with blood to encourage the animals

On other occasions, they were left to run free in the arena, prolonging their death & lengthening the spectacle

Slaves of aristocratic men were expected to fight to the death in his honour

Chosen for toughness & physique

Training

Trained like athletes & learnt how to use various weapons

Received medical attention

Had 3 meals a day

Took years to train a good gladiator

Upon beginning, had to swear oath: "We solemnly swear to obey our trainer in everything. To endure burning, imprisonment, flogging & even death by the sword."

Fought with wooden swords - no fatal injuries

Crested helmet with visor

Breastplate

Greave (shin-pad) on left leg

Large shield

Short sword

Myrmillo

Same armour as secutor (except helmet)

Upper part of body was bare

Loin cloth & wide leather belt

Greave on left leg

Arm guard on right arm

Curved rectangular shield (like Roman soldier)

Slashing sword (like a dagger)

Bare head

Most distinct

Lightly armed retiarius (skill & quickness of movement) vs heavier gladiator (brute force)

If the trainers felt the gladiators weren't fighting hard enough, they would whip them until they improved

Gladiators dressed in gold & purple cloaks

Halted at emperor's box & said "Hail Caesar! We who are about to die salute you."

Given wooden sword to symbolise freedom

Some returned because they needed the money or missed the excitement

Women especially admired them & saw them as sex symbols - even buying small bottles of their sweat as keepsakes

Crested helmet, decorated with a fish

Loincloth & wide leather belt

Plain helmet with only 2 small eye-holes to protect from a trident thrust

Secutor specifically trained to fight retiarius - secutor means 'chaser', likely because the retiarius used running as one of his tactics

Secutor had to win quickly as would easily tire in heavy armour & shortage of oxygen under helmet

Retiarius means 'net fighter'

Lightest armed & only one with uncovered head/face

More mobile, but vulnerable to serious wounds

Had to avoid fighting at close quarters, instead trying to cast his net & then thrust his trident

Seats accessed via 'vomitoria'

First seating level (podium) there were separate boxes for the Emperor, Vestal Virgins & senators

Hypogeum

Beneath arena was a network of tunnels, cages & lifts where criminals & animals were held before sent into arena

Slaves worked hefe to provide special effects & send up animals

Linked by tunnels to various points outside so animals weren't seen before the games

Ground covered in sand to soak up blood of victims

A 'sea battle' was held at opening games, suggesting that it didn't always have a hypogeum

Lasted until one was seriously wounded

Could last as long as 15 or 20 minutes

Style of execution was varied to please the crowds

Also scared people into behaving

Gladiator event might begin with parade

Then their weapons were examined

Morning show might begin with mimic gladiatorial battle - combatants fought with blunted weapons

Gave crowd foretaste of real gladiatorial events to come later

"The purpose of executing criminals in public ... is that they serve as a warning to all, and because in life they did not wish to be useful citizens, the state benefits by their death." - Seneca, On Anger 1.6.4

"I happened to call in at a midday show hoping for some light & witty enterainment. I was bitterly disappointed. It was really mere butchery. The morning's show was merciful compared to it. Then men were thrown to lions & to bears: but at midday to the audience. ... Unhappy that I am, how have I deserved that I must look on such a scene as this?" - Seneca, Letters 7.3ff

Crowd wanted & came for blood

"Man, an object of reverence in the eyes of men, is now slaughtered for jest and sport ... and it is a satisfying spectacle to see a man made a corpse." - Seneca, Moral Letters to Lucilius, letter 95

Acculturated to violence

"There are the peculiar and characteristic vices of this metropolis of ours, taken on, it seems to me, almost in the mother's womb - the passion for play actors and the mania for gladiatorial shows and horse-racing." - Tacitus

Inscription suggests that Quinctius Valgus & Marcius Porcius funded its construction (the same two men credited with the construction of the Odeon in Pompeii)

Central arena dug out & earth piled up to form banked seating

In AD 62, massive earthquake wrecked large parts of amphitheatre that had to be rebuilt - evidence that certain sections still under repair at time of Vesuvius' eruption

Main banks of seating accessed by stairs on outside of main wall

Seating closest to arena accessed through archways at ground level

Built so that it took only 15 mins to fill & 5-10 mins to evacuate

Pictures

Pictures

Wall painting

Some evidence that female gladiators may have existed

Mosaic

Triumphant & fallen gladiators

Mosaic

Orchestra accompanying gladiatorial combat