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SUSS PSY 108 PSYCHOLOGY Study Unit 2 (Emotions (Theories of Emotions. …
SUSS PSY 108
PSYCHOLOGY Study Unit 2
Emotions
Definition
It is a four-part process that involves:
physiological arousal
subjective feelings
cognitive interpretation
behavioural expression.
Emotions help us to attend and respond to an important situation and to convey our intentions to others.
Emotional Expressions
Cultural Universals in
Emotional Expression
Robert Plutchik’s emotion whee
l arranges
eight
primary emotions on the inner ring:
love
awe
disappointment
remorse
submission
contempt
aggressiveness
optimism
Paul Ekman
- people everywhere can recognize at least
seven basic emotions
:
sadness
fear
anger
disgust
contempt
happiness
surprise.
Cultural Differences in
Emotional Expression
Huge differences exist across cultures in both the context and intensity of emotional displays—because of
display rules
.
E.g. In many Asian cultures, for example, children are taught to control emotional responses—especially negative ones—while many American children are encouraged to express their feelings more openly
Display rules
The permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society.
Two Emotion-Processing Pathways
Emotions in the
unconscious
- From Lymbic System
Quick response to cues before consciousness
Brain circuitry that operates automatically
Conscious
emotional processing - From the Prefrontal cortex
Slower generation of emotion
Relies on
The Cerebral Cortex’s
Plays a key role in the conscious emotion pathway, where it both interprets events and associates them with memories and feelings.
The two frontal lobes have complementary roles in controlling our emotions. Just as distinct patches of cortex produce different sensations, positive and negative emotions are associated with opposite hemispheres, an effect called
lateralization of emotion.
lateralization of emotion
The two brain hemispheres process different various emotions. The left hemisphere apparently focuses on positive emotions (for example, happiness), while the right hemisphere deals primarily with negative emotions (such as anger).
Where the Cortex Meets the Limbic System
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (
VMPFC
). Located on the floor of the brain’s frontal lobes, just behind the eyes, connects with both the amygdala and the hippocampus. There, the VMPFC mixes external stimulation with the body’s reaction and converts the result into an emotional memory: i.e. Was it positive or negative?
The
Autonomic Nervous System’s Role
in Emotion For example, in an accident
Signals along the sympathetic pathways direct the adrenal glands to release stress hormones.
When the emergency passes, the parasympathetic division takes over, carry- ing instructions that counteract the emergency orders of a few moments earlier. You may, remain aroused for some time after experiencing a strong emotional activation because hormones continue to circulate in the bloodstream.
Theories of Emotions.
There are three general theories of Emotions:
A. James-Lange Theory
B. Cannon-bard Theory
C. Schater's Two factor Theory.
B. Cannon-bard theory
An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time
One is not the cause of the other, Both results from cognitive appraisal of the situation
Cognitive appraisal of situation
Physiological Arousal (i.e. trembling
increased heart rate)
Emotion (i.e. Fear)
Stimuli (i.e. Snake)
C. Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory
Emotions arise from both cognitive interpretations of the stimulus and physiological arousal.
Stimuli (i.e. Snake)
Physiological arousal
-trembling
-increased heart rate
Cognitive interpretation
“I feel afraid!”
Emotion (i.e. Fear)
A. James-Lange theory
An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion
Stimuli (i.e. Snake)
Physiological Arousal (i.e. trembling
increased heart rate)
Emotion (i.e. Fear)
Motivation
Motivation Theories
Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory
Motivation arises from the unconscious
(id); developmental changes in these urges appear as we mature
Two basic desires
eros
, the erotic desire;
thanatos
, the aggressive or destructive impulse.
To avoid mental problems, we must continually seek acceptable outlets for our sexual and aggressive needs.
Instinct theory
The now-outmoded view that certain behaviours are completely determined by innate factors (Instinct). I.e The motivation to feed and reproduce which is driven by biological instincts.
This theory has its roots in darwinian evolution
The instinct theory was flawed because it overlooked the effects of learning and because it employed instincts merely as labels rather than as explanations for behaviour.
A modern term for Instinct would be:
Fixed action pattern
unlearned behaviour patterns that are triggered by identifiable stimuli and that occur throughout a species.
The concept of fixed-action patterns has replaced the older notion of instinct
Drive Theory
Developed as an alternative to instinct theory, drive theory explains
motivation
as a
process
in which a
biological need produces a drive
that moves an organism to meet the need.
For most drives, this process returns the organism to a balanced condition, known as
homeostasis
Biological drive
A motive, such as a thirst, that is based primarily in biology.
A drive is a
state of tension
that
motivates
an organism to satisfy a biological need.
Homeostasis
The body’s tendency to maintain a
biologically balanced condition,
especially with regard to nutrients, water, and temperature
Need
In drive theory, a need is a
biological imbalance
(such as dehydration) that
threatens survival
if the need is left unmet. Biological needs are believed to produce drives
McClelland’s Theory
Need for Affiliation
A cooperative, rather than competitive, environment is best for those high in the need for affiliation.
Need for Power
For those high in power, give them the opportunity to manage projects or work teams.
Need for Achievement
In McClelland’s theory, a mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal.
Measured using
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)
. I.e. stories people would tell to describe a series of ambiguous pictures
Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
'Hierachy of needs
'
The notion that occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic
Esteem - Needs for confidence
Affiliation - Needs to belong
Safety - Comfort
Self Actualization - Needs to fulfill a purpose or goal
Biological needs - Food
Self-transcendence - Needs to further beyond self
Cognitive Theory
Locus of control
The key concept that emerges from the Cognitive Theory is the locus of control which refers to whether we believe our
actions are controlled by internal or external factors
If, for example, a child believes that his exam results will depend on his academic ability or his efforts in studying, the child is said to have an
internal locus of control
If, on the other hand, the child believes that the outcome of his exam is dependent on luck or difficulty of the exam questions, then the child is said to have
an external locus of control
How psychologists use the concept of
motivation:
No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioural, and social/cultural influences
Depending on the theory applied, motivation could:
Accounts for variability in behaviour
Relates biology to behaviour
Connects observable behaviour to internal states
Explains perseverance despite adversity
Definition
Motivation refers to all the processes involved in initiating, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities.
They can be influenced by multiple factors, both internal and external
Types
Extrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward
Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake rather than for some external consequence, such as a reward.
Social Behaviour
Social Psychology
The branch of psychology that studies the effects of social variables and cognition
on individual behaviour and social interactions.
Social psychologists try to understand behaviour within its
social context.
Social Context
The combination of
people
the activities and interactions of people,
the setting in which behaviour occurs
the expectations and social norms governing behaviour in that setting.
Social Role
A socially defined pattern of behaviour that is expected of persons in a given setting or group.
Zimbardo’s prison experiment
Participants randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards
• Chosen from the large pool of volunteers
• No systematic differences between groups before the experiment
• Dramatic differences during the experiment
• Guards- behaved aggressively
• Prisoners- behaved pathologically passive
• A new social reality was created
• Forced the experiment to end
Milgram’s obedience research and the Stanford Prison Experiment illustrated the power of situations over behaviour.
However, the obedience studies were about individual authority power, while
the prison experiment is about the power of an institution,
a system of domination.
Social norm
A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’
attitudes and behaviors.
Conformity
The tendency for people to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and opinions of other members of a group.
Why we conform
Neurosciences
different brain regions involved in
independent judgments vs. conformity
Psychological experiments relating to conformity
Normative influence
2 more items...
Informational influence
1 more item...
Group Think
The term for the
poor judgments and bad decisions
made by members of groups that are
overly influenced by perceived group consensus or the leader’s point of view.
Five conditions likely to promote groupthink are:
Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures for evidence collection/evaluation
Homogeneity
of members’ social background and ideology
High group
cohesiveness
, with an absence of dissenting views
High stress
from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of
the group leader
Directive leadership
, a dominant leader
Rosenthal Effect or Pygmalion Effect
higher expectations lead to an increase in performance
Rosenthal's Experiment
Rosenthal randomly selected 20% of students and informed the teachers that those students were 'bloomers'.
Teachers provided positive feedback on these 'bloomers' in addition to providing more attention. As a result, the 'bloomers' did, in fact, perform well.
There was a negative correlation in regard to non-bloomers. Those non-bloomers who score high IQ points were rated negatively by teachers (i.e. the student is not well adjusted)
While the students experienced the Rosenthal effect, the teachers were experiencing what Rosenthal calls this:
self-fulfilling prophecy
i.e. Observations or behaviours that result primarily from expectations.
The Bystander effect
The more people present in a crisis, the less likely it is that anyone bystander will intervene.
Pluralistic Ignorance
pluralistic ignorance is a situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but incorrectly assume that most others accept it, and therefore go along with it
Diffusion of responsibility
Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members
How Does the
Social Situation
Affect our Behaviour
Situationalism
The view that environmental conditions may influence people’s behaviour as much as or more than their personal dispositions do under some circumstances
Disposition
A view that focuses primarily on the inner characteristics of individuals, such as personality dispositions, values, character, and genetic makeup. Contrasted with situationism, the focus is on external causes of behaviour.
Interpersonal Attaraction
Reward theory of attraction
People prefer relationship which is beneficial.
Similarity principle
The notion that people are attracted to those who are most similar to themselves
on significant dimensions.
Self Disclosure
The sharing of personal information and feelings with another person as part of the process of developing trust.
The principle of proximity.
The notion that people at work will make more friends among those who are nearby—with whom they have the most contact. Proximity means “nearness.”
Physical attractiveness
tendency to be attracted to physically attractive others
Expectancy-value theory
A social psychology theory that states how people decide whether to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectation of success in establishing the relationship. (Think utiliterianism)
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Developed by Leon Festinger. A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions (Inconsistencies), especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes or values.
Leon Festinger states that this state creates an uncomfortable internal state called: Dissonance
Festinger explains that we act in order to reduce this tension or dissonance. Tension can be reduced by changing behaviour or changing cognitions – People often reduce the conflict (tension) by changing their thinking to fit their behaviour.
Example
The woman in an abusive relationship can resolve her cognitive dissonance in one of two ways
by changing her behaviour, i.e. leaving the relationship
or
by adjusting her thinking (self-justification), i.e. convincing herself that she needs to stay in the relationship for her children’s sake