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Theory and Practise in Qualitative Research (2) (Explain the effect of…
Theory and Practise in Qualitative Research (2)
Explain the effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research
Participant expectations
Participant factors that influence the outcome of the research (eg. participant's idea of what happens in the research, or how the researcher wants them to behave)
Could lead participants to behave in ways that are unnatural to please the researcher or because they have an idea of getting advantages from participating (eg. in research of fatal disease, thinking that they can recover), especially if the researcher and participant have a good rapport
Participant may behave in ways that they feel is expected of them (socially acceptable)
Participants may conform to other participants because they do not want to be different (socially desirable)
Participants try to be consistent in their answers and sometimes a previous statement influences the later one, meaning some of their answers are untrue. Researchers should cross check for credibility rather than uncritically believe in everything the participant said
Audience effect (get nervous while others are watching); Hawthorne effect (participants change behaviour)
Researcher bias
The researcher's own ideas/beliefs may bias the research process --> results are the reflection of researcher's subjective interpretation/expectation instead of participant's idea
The researcher is the primary instrument of research and hugely affect the research process, so they should be aware of their subjectivity and apply reflexivity
If the research takes place over a long period of time, researcher's objective position on the subject matter may be changed as a result of interaction with participants
Conscious/subconscious actions of the researcher (eg. smiling or frowning) may bias data collection and skew the results towards the expected hypothesis
Strauss and Corbin (1988) on bias
Bias is inevitable in qualitative research but at times desirable
Research and participant should bring in their beliefs, ideals and actively involve in the research. However, they should be aware of the biases they present
May add to the richness of knowledge about a complex problem
Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research
The use of different approaches to the gathering of data in a single study to improve the credibility of the conclusion
Based on the assumption that by comparing data obtained through different methods or researchers in the same setting --> possible to eliminate bias from using a single method/researcher
Data triangulation
Comparison of data from different sources (eg. participants, time)
Provides additional sources to describe the phenomenon under investigation
Researcher triangulation
Use more than one researcher to collect and analyse data
Particularly effective in counteracting researcher bias since the interpretation of results is discussed
Theoretical triangulation
Use of several or even competing theories to analyse data
Promotes a deeper and more credible understanding of the topic
Could reveal contradictions in data
Reduce researcher bias
Methodological triangulation
Use of different methods (eg. observation, two ways of interviewing) in the same study
Takes strengths of different research methods and compensates for methodological limitations
If is possible to have unreliable data even when triangulation is applied
Systematic bias like researcher expectancy --> conclusions are not made more credible but instead creates an illusion of credibility
Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research
The investigation must show a true picture of the phenomenon and it should be possible to check how the results of the study were obtained. Used as a criteria for quality
Establish trustworthiness, ie. that the results can be trusted
Linked to participant expectation and researcher bias. For researcher, his/her interests, training experience should be identified to spot potential sources of bias (reflexivity). Researcher should use self awareness and reflect to show how potential bias can affect the research process and conclusion
Factors affecting credibility: triangulation; researcher reflexivity (mentioned above); cross checking facts and discrepancies in participant's account; peer review to cross check; leaving a 'decision trial' (documenting every decision, analysis and interpretation of data)
Explain reflexivity in qualitative research
Based on the assumption that it is important for the researcher to constantly be aware of how and why they are conducting the research
Recognise how their opinions and beliefs of the topic can influence data collection or analysis
Help readers determine whether the conclusions are credible and truthworthy
Personal reflexivity/Prospective reflexivity
Reflect the ways in which the researcher's beliefs, experiences interests have influenced the research
Think about how research has affected the researcher personally and professionally
To help researchers reflex, many researchers will undergo interview with a colleague to expose any biases they have. They can also use a journal to reflect and recognise, limit bias
Epistemological reflexivity (methodologies)
Think about ways in which knowledge has been generated in the study, aware of the assumptions that underpin the research process
Retrospective reflexivity
Effects of the study on the researcher
In many qualitative studies the researcher may be in closer contact with their subject of study, compared with quantitative studies, so the chance for impact of the research on the researcher is also greater
Reflexivity is really important in qualitative research because there are so many ways in which researcher bias could affect the study, from the creation of data gathering tools, to collecting the data, analysing it and reporting it. This is because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and methodology