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French foreign policy up to 1808 (Successes and Failures (1800 - Successes…
French foreign policy up to 1808
Napoleon's military success, 1799 - 1802
Shortly before Napoeon seized power in November 1799, the Second Coalition had been weakened by the Russian withdrawal at Zurich (Sept 99).
Nevertheless, Napoleon still faced the formidable combination of Austria, Prussia and Britain
In 1800, he chose to mount a 'surprise' attack against the Austrians south of the Alps, in North Italy
In May, he lead 50,000 men through the Swiss Alps and across the Great Saint-Bernard Pass, but the crossing took longer than expected, and the Austrians were waiting for him
Napoleon's men were outnumbered and exhausted when the Austrians attacked them at Marengo. They looked set to lose, until the timely arrival of reserve troops enabled the French to win the day
In November, a second army was sent against the Austrians, travelling north of the Alps towards Vienna.
This too was victorious at Hohennlinden (Dec 1800) and Austria was forced to sign the Treaty of Luneville in Feb 1801
By this, France was allowed to keep all its former gains (Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine and Northern Italy) as well as taking new lands in Tuscany, while Austria lost all its lands in Italy except Venice and the Dalmation coast
This left just Britain at war with France. By 1802. exhaustion on both sides led to the Peace of Amiens
The Peace of Amiens and renewed war with Britain, 1802-05
By the Peace of Amiens, France agreed to leave the United Provinces, Naples and the Papal States in return for a number of British withdrawals:
All overseas territories taken by Britain in the past nine years (including several West Indians islands) were to be returned to the French
Minorca was to be returned to Spain and the Cape Colony in South Africa to the Dutch
Egypt was to be returned to the Turks
Malta was to be returned to the Knights of Saint John
Britain would keep Sri Lanka (taken from Dutch) and Trinidad (which had previously been Spanish)
The peace did not last. Neither side fully honoured its terms (Napoleon remained in the United Provinces and the British stayed in Malta)
In May 1803, Britain declared war again
Napoleon spent some time planning an invasion of Britain but abandoned this when he faced a renewed threat from Austria in the late summer of 1805
In any case, an invasion was fraught with difficulties because of the strength of the British Navy
This became all too clear when the British Admiral Nelson destroyed a joint Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805
The invasion of Britain and the Battle of Trafalgar
Between 1803 and 1805, Napoleon created a massive 'Army of England' comprising 193,000 men and 9149 horses
It was camped along the Channel coast where 2443 boats were built to transport it
This operation would require at least four days so it became essential to distract the British Navy
Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve lured the British Admiral Horatio Nelson to the West Indies and back, but Napokeon postponed his invasion to deal with Austria in August 1805
In October, Nelson's fleet trapped the combined French and Spanish navies in Cape Trafalgar (off south-west Spain) and on 21st October, 27 British ships under Nelson defeated 33 French and Spanish ships under Villeneuve in the Battle of Trafalgar
The Franco-Spanish fleet lost 22 ships, while the British, employing new tactics, lost none.
This confirmed British naval superiority and, despite Nelson's death, ended Napoleon's hopes of invading Britain
Napoleon's military success, 1805-08
William Pitt (the British Prime Minister) worked hard to finance a new (third) coalition against France from 1804 and succeeded in forging an alliance with Russia in April 1805, and Austria a few months later.
Prussia initially remained neutral, probably because its ruler, Frederick-William, had hopes of seizing British Hanover
This allowed Napoleon to concentrate his forces against the Austrians and Russians
In October 1805: Napoleon surrounded and defeated the Austrians at Ulm on the River Danube, capturing more than 50,000 troops with minimal French losses; in November, he entered Vienna unopposed
December 1805: he inflicted a crushing defeat on larger Austro-Russian force (90,000 men to the French 68,000) at Austerlitz. This ended Austria's part in the coalition and forced the Russians to retreat
July 1806: Napoleon established the 'Confederation of the Rhine' in central/western Germany. This provoked the Prussians, who were also angered by the French attempts to put a stop to all trade with Britain. Prussia joined Britain and Russia in Sept 1806. However, the Prussians fared no better than the Austrians and further defeats led both Prussians and Russians to seek peace
October 1806: The Prussians were completely crushed at Jena and Auerstadt and Napoleon entered Berlin
1807: A battle at Eylau in Feb and another at Friedland in June brought about the total withdrawal of Russian troops
Napoleon had broken the Third Coalition and occupied the historic capitals of Vienna, Berlin and Warsaw
He concluded his remarkable run of success by making peace with Tsar Alexander I on a raft on the River Neman at Tilsit in June-July 1807
By the Treaty of Tilsit (July 1807), Prussia had to give up its share of Poland, enabling the French to create a grand duchy of Warsaw.
In addition it lost other territory which was incorporated into the Kingdom of Westphalia
It also had to suffer the indignity of a French army of occupation until an indemnity of 120 million francs was paid
By this treaty, Russia agreed to join the continental system
Napoleon and Italy by 1808
Napoleon's year of success culminated in the annexation of the Papal States in Italy
In Feb 1808, Napoleon ordered the occupation of Rome. In March, the Papal provinces of Ancona, Macerata, Fermo and Urbino were annexted to the Kingdom of Italy and diplomatic relations between the French and the Papacy were broken
This annexation strengthened Napoleon's continental system and showed that the balance of power had swung firmly away from the Papacy in favour of the Emperor
Napoleon and the Papacy
In May 1809, Napoleon issued two decrees from the Schonbrunn Palace near Vienna which confirmed that territories which were still under the direct control of the Papal States were to be annexed to the French Empire
Although the Pope was given a pension of 2 million francs per annum in lieu, he excommunicated Napoleon
The Pope was subsequently moved to Grenoble and then to Savona in the Ligurian Republic, where he was confined
He only returned to Rome in 1814
Successes and Failures
1800 - Successes
- 2nd Italian Campaign defeats Austrian at Battle of Marengo. 14th June French Victory at Bavania, Austria lose control of Belgium and all Northern Italy except for Venice. Net territory gains large for France
1799 - Failures
- Briefly lost control of the Italian states to First Coalition leading to 2nd Italian Campaign
1800
- Treaty with Austria recognising acquisitions
1802 - Successes
- Peace of Amiens with Britain, they return some colonies to France
1802 - Failures
- Napoleon withdraws from Naples, Brits do not give back Sri Lanka, following year war breaks out again between Britain and France
1805 - Successes
- won series of victories in Austria, e.g. Austerlitz where 68,000 French defeated 90,000 Austrian troops. French take West Wuttenberg, Buden, Bavaria
1805 - Failures
- lost Battle of Trafalgar, France Spanish fleet destroyed. British ally with 3rd coalition. End to his dreams of invading Britain
1806
- destroyed coalition at Jena. Confederation of the Rhine established
1807 - Successes
- summer, Napoleon beat the Russians resulting in the Peace of Tilsit, 7th July. Relinquished territory in Poland creating the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Kingdom of Westphalia created out of 1/2 Prussian Territory
1807 - Failures
- neither Russia nor France claim outright Victory at Eylau
1808
- established continental blockade to fight Britain. Napoleon annexes papal states.