Theory and Practise in Qualitative Research (1)
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data
Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research
Qualitative data
Quantitative data
The researcher's intention or assumption about the nature of the topic being researched will affect the method they use
Assumes that variables can be identified and relationships between them can be measured using statistics, to infer a cause-effect relationship
Reliable, objective dependent variable with little extraneous variables
Common approaches are laboratory experiments and correlational studies, observation is also possible
Evaluation of quantitative research focuses on the reliability and validity of the research design and the conclusions made; the degree to which the results can then be generalized beyond the sample used in the research
Numerical data, easy analysis through statistical tests
Describe human behaviour by investigating the subjective meaning that people attach to their experience with necessarily removing participants from their natural context
Impossible to be truly objective since the research's design and researcher's interpretation can lead to bias
Less need to obtain a large, representative data sample since the results are usually not intended to be generalised beyond the group studied
Usually used to construct theories rather than test theories
Can suggest correlation but not cause-effect relationship. It is reductionist to believe that complex and multi-faceted
as human behaviour can be explained in terms of the
causal relationships between single variables
Common approaches are interviews, case studies and observations through direct interaction with participants
Researcher is the main instrument for data collection and analysis
Description based data, including transcript and field notes, difficult and time consuming to analyse since there is no single approach to it
Weaknesses
Because of its subjective nature and origins in single contexts, its reliability and validity is debatable
Small sample, contexts, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a wider context
Large amount of data/triangulation/longitudinal study means time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy
Analysis of qualitative data is difficult and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to interpret qualitative data, and great care must be taken when doing so
Researcher bias and participant expectation
Strengths
Useful for investigating complex and sensitive topics
People are studied in real life settings so there is more
ecological validity
The approach generates new ideas and theories to deal
with real life problems
Rich data (in-depth and subjective information open or interpretation based on individual experiences based on concepts, meanings and explanations emerging from data)
Researchers and participants spend more time with each other, so in-depth or unforeseen results can be obtained
To what extent can findings be generalised from qualitative studies?
Often not possible due to few reasons
Small sample size
Sampling is based on selection criteria and not
representativeness (e.g. purposive, snowball or volunteer
sampling)
Under some conditions, generalisations may be possible
Representational generalisation
Inferential generalisability/transferability
Theoretical generalisation
Findings from a study can be applied to another population, eg. people from another city
If findings from similar studies support the data, some degree of generalisation may be possible
Findings from a study can be applied to different settings under the condition that the nature of the situation is similar
Example - Effectiveness of a service for women suffering from domestic violence transferred to investigating shelter home for the same target population
Theoretical concepts found from a study can be used to develop further theories
Example - developing resilience in homeless adolescents,
could be effectively applied in policies to establish help centres or people
Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research
Informed consent
Participants must understand what the study involves and participate voluntarily
Participants should be able to understand the information given before, during or after the study. Researchers are encouraged to share transcripts or discuss results with the participants
An ethics committee must approve the study if participants do not give informed consent due to the nature of the study
In covert participant observation, the researcher should consider whether the information is that important to potentially put the participant/researcher in jeopardy
Protection from harm
Consider whether the research could potentially harm the participant in any ways
Questions should be clear and direct if the topic is sensitive, researcher should avoid participants from experiencing discomfort or anxiety
Protect participants from any consequences from participating (eg. domestic violence), follow up to ensure participant's wellbeing
Anonymity and confidentiality
Confidentiality - participants can be identified through codes or numbers so the information must be kept secured
Research materials (eg. video tapes) should be destroyed and transcripts anonymised
Anonymity - no identifying values that can link the information to the participant
Potential exploitation of participants
Researcher could use reflexivity and consult others when socially/psychologically vulnerable people who cannot protect themselves
Researcher must justify findings based on deception and covert research on sensitive issues
Researcher may result in obtaining sensitive information that can affect the participant in long term (eg. getting insurance, employment). This should be avoided and participant should be informed about this possiblity
Long term research process with participant revealing personal/sensitive information --> difficult to maintain researcher objectivity
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (eg. purposive/snowball sampling)
The objectives of the research project and nature of group investigated will affect the choice of sampling technique
Select participants who are particularly informative about the research topic, generalisation of findings is less important
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Characteristics of individuals are used as the basis of selection to reflect the diversity of sample population
Recruitment of participants until researchers have collected enough data to form a theory (data saturation)
Participants are chosen based on salient characteristics (selection criteria) related to the research topic, such as: socioeconomic status, specific experience or purpose of the study
Strengths
Participants are relevant to the topic investigated as they are selected specifically based on salient characteristics
Appropriate sampling method can be used according to each individual case
Easy to get a sample of subjects with specific characteristics --> cost and time efficient
Weaknesses
Highly prone to researcher bias
Difficult to generalise from a small purposive sample
Participants in the study help researcher to recruit more participants through their social network
Strengths
Cost efficient and easy way to recuit
Useful when investigating sensitive topics where participants are not easily accessible (eg. drug abusers)
Weaknesses
Likely to be biased since participants know each other and may have similar values/attitude/experiences
Ethical issues - anonymity and confidentiality is hard to maintain since participants know each other
Convenience sampling (volunteer)
Participants chose based on availability
Strengths
Easy and cost-efficient way to recruit
Quick way to collect data and research
Weaknesses
Recruitment is not based on any population --> difficult to generalise
Possible researcher bias in selecting participant
Likely to generate research with low credibility and poor in information since information is random based on nature of the participant, not particularly representative of any group
Qualitative researchers are concerned with meaning, interested in how people make sense of the world and how they experience events