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Adolescence :eggplant::sweat_drops::peach: (Social development (Risk…

- - - - fluctuation linked w depression, irritability however social influences account for more variation - storm and stress of adolescence not universal - Arnett
  - - - Neurons form synapses with others
- - - - Remembering to carry out intended activities in the future
      - Wang et al. (2006)
        
        14 year olds and 20 year olds:
        
        Answer personality questions (ongoing task)
        
        Put two ticks if the question includes a negative word (PM task)
        
        Manipulated emphasis on the task
        
        14 year olds showed poorer performance on the PM task
        
        But no age effect if importance of PM task emphasised
    - - Hooper et al. (2004):
        
        Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) to test decision-making in adolescents
        
        The 14-17 year olds made significantly more advantageous choices and shifted their preference earlier
        
        Links to ventro-medial PFC
    - - Response inhibition: The ability to inhibit compelling task-inappropriate responses and select task-appropriate responses
      - Luna et al. (2004):
        
        anti-saccade task with 8 to 30 year olds
        
        When the stimulus appears, look at the opp. location
      - Reasoning and abstract/hypothetical thinking improve from late childhood to mid-adolescence (Steinberg, 2005)
    - - • Focus on the self – fail to differentiate own thoughts from others
      - Egocentric behaviour can manifest as the "imaginary audience“
      - Adolescents find it more stressful to be under social scrutiny (Gunnar et al., 2009)
      - Negative correlation between egocentrism and academic achievement (Bester, 2013)
      - However, no difference between adolescents and young adults (age 19 to 30) (Frankenberger, 2000)
      - Counterpoint - Somerville 2013 (review)
        
        A subset of the socioaffective circuitry described earlier is thought to support theory-of-mind processes. These regions, sometimes termed the social brain (Blakemore, 2008), include the MPFC, temporoparietal junction, superior temporal sulcus, and other regions that are consistently engaged across a wide variety of tasks that carry mentalizing demands. Such tasks include those in which participants are asked to reason about moral scenarios (Blakemore, Den Ouden, Choudhury, & Frith, 2007) and about social emotions, such as guilt and embarrassment, relative to less socially guided emotions, such as disgust and fear (e.g., Burnett, Bird, Moll, Frith, & Blakemore, 2009).
        
        emotions, such as disgust and fear (e.g., Burnett, Bird, Moll, Frith, & Blakemore, 2009). Developmental investigations have demonstrated that MPFC recruitment is more robust in adolescents than in adults during tasks that share the common process of considering the thoughts and intentions of others (see Burnett, Sebastian, Kadosh, & Blakemore, 2011, for a review). Burnett and Blakemore (2009) also observed heightened task-based functional connectivity between brain regions important for social cognition in adolescents compared with adults. Given that the prefrontal cortex continues to undergo changes in structural maturation throughout adolescence, heightened activity during adolescence has been proposed to reflect the MPFC’s continuing developmental course (Blakemore, 2008). It has also been proposed that adolescents use strategies for theory of mind that more strongly engage the MPFC. Alternatively, adolescents might consider thoughts and feelings of others to be more important or salient than adults do, which might strongly engage the processing resources of socioaffective neural circuitry through heightened motivation to understand others (and thus greater effort allocated to mentalizing).
- - - - Gardner and Steinberg (2005) peer infl. stoplight game - more risky driving in adolescents when 2 friends present
      - Risktaking decreased w. age
      - peer effects on risk taking and risky decision making were stronger among adolescents and youths than adults.
    - - limbic system develops before PFC
      - limbic system inv. in social and emosh info and reward evaluation
      - Chein et al 2011 - stoplight game in scanner
      - dominates exec function control of PFC
    - - Many adolescents take part in
        risk-taking despite knowing the risks
      - Risk-taking is influenced more
        by puberty stage than physical
        age (Martin et al., 2002)
      - Egocentrism contributes to risk taking (Omori & Ingersoll, 2005)
      - Adolescents are high in sensation-seeking (Arnett, 1992)
  - - - Heightened sensitivity to peer influence in adolescence
      - BUT resistance to peer pressure also develops
      - Steinberg and Monahan (2007): 3,600 10 to 30 year olds completed resistance to peer influence measure
    - - Adolescents begin to spend less time with family and more with peers (Barnes et al., 2007)
      - Peak digital communication between age 14 and 17 (Lenhart et al., 2010)
      - Social relationships change – shift towards romantic relationships
      - Peer rejection a common feature of adolescent relationships (Wang et al., 2009)
      - Peer rejection affects feelings of personal worth (O’Brien & Bierman, 1988)
  - - - 8 to 36 year olds completed an emotional perspective taking task
      - Task – imagine either how they would feel (first person) or how another person would feel (third person) in different scenarios
      - Choose one of two emotional faces as fast as possible
      - Calculate reaction time difference between first and third person
      - This difference reduced with age
        
        however, are adolescents actually considering more?