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SUSS PSY 108 PSYCHOLOGY Study Unit 1 (HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (Primary Interest…

- - - - Twin Study
        A means of separating the effects of nature and nurture by which investigators may
        compare identical twins to fraternal twins or compare twins separated early in life and raised in a different environment
      - Adoptive Study
        A method of separating the effect of nature and nurture by which investigators
        compare characteristics of adopted children with those of individuals in their biological and adoptive families.
    - - Longitudinal research involves the same individuals or group of individuals being tracked across a relatively long period of time.
      - Cross-sectional studies, on the other hand, compare different groups of people at the same time, where the groups range in age, in order to determine age related differences amongst the groups.
  - - - Sensory Abilities
        What can newborns do with their senses?
        
        They can respond to taste positively or negatively. This is part of the newborn’s ability to seek healthy nourishment.
        
        They also have strong auditory preferences, preferring human voices over other sounds,
      - Innate reflexes
        
        Reflexive response present at birth.
        
        Postural reflex allows babies to sit with support.
        
        Grasping reflex enables them to cling to a caregiver.
        
        Rooting reflex is apparent when newborns turn their heads toward anything that strokes their cheeks.
        
        Stepping reflex, which helps prepare a baby to walk.
      - Mimicry
        
        The imitation of other people’s behaviors.
        
        One of the modes in which Babies respond to and interact with, their caregivers.
        
        These early interactions, the combined result of nature (mirror neurons) and nurture (positive reinforcement gained from mimicry), form the basis for the later development of empathy.
    - - Sensitive Period
        
        The most fertile time for brain development in many areas, including language and emotional intelligence.
        
        In fact, in some domains, such as hearing and vision, stimulation must occur during a specific “window of opportunity,” or the ability will not develop normally
      - Brain Development
        
        The total mass of neural tissue in the brain increases rapidly, As the dendrites and axons grow and connect.
        
        The types of experiences the infant is exposed to will largely determine which regions and functions of the brain become most developed.
        
        Synaptic Pruning
        
        Unused connections begin to be trimmed away in a process called synaptic pruning.
        
        This process does not destroy the neurons themselves but instead returns them to an uncommitted state, awaiting a role in future development.
    - - Embryonic Period
        
        Limbs start to develop in a process known as differentiation.
        
        The heart begins beating.
      - Fetal Period
        
        The brain develops rapidly.
        
        Spontaneous movements and basic reflexes begin to appear.
      - Zygote Period
        
        Fertilization occurs.
        
        The zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus.
        
        Placenta starts to form.
  - - - Important implications Establishment of mother-and-child band is not purely dependant on the satisfaction of one's physiological needs (warmth) but also emotional (acceptance)
    - - Human attachment: Innate
        Psychologist John Bowlby (1969, 1973) suggested human attachment is innate, begins as early as the first few weeks, and functions as a survival strategy for infants.
      - Ainsworth's Attachment Styles
        
        Children seem to differ in their types of attachment.
        
        Ainsworth noticed this and studied the attachment patterns of children and their primary sometimes together, sometimes separated, and sometimes with a stranger.
        
        This was known as the 'Strange Situation'
        
        Secure Attachment
        
        The attachment style of children who are relaxed and comfortable with their
        caregivers and tolerant of strangers and new experiences as contrasted with children who are insecurely attached.
        
        When separated from their caregivers, they became upset which is a normal behavior called separation anxiety**—but calmed down immediately on the caregiver’s return and resumed their normal activities.
        
        Insecure Attachment Divided into two categories: anxious- ambivalent and avoidant
        
        Anxious-ambivalent Attachment
        A response pattern seen in insecurely attached children in which a child wants contact with the caregiver shows excessive distress when separated from the caregiver, and proves difficult to console even when reuniting
        
        Avoidant Attachment
        A response pattern seen in insecurely attached children in which a child shows no interest in contact with the caregiver and displays neither distress when separated from the caregiver nor happiness when reunited
      - Imprinting
        A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and hear.
  - - - Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
        
        2. Preoperational Stage
        
        The second stage in Piaget’s theory, marked by well-developed mental
        representation and the use of language.
        
        Some features are as follow:
        
        2–7 years
        
        Egocentrism
        In Piaget’s theory, the inability to realize that there are other viewpoints/ perspective beside one’s own.
        
        Three mountain test. If we ask a child to draw a mountain range from the front view, they would probably be able to do it, but if you ask them to draw from a side view of top view etc, they will find it extremely challenging.
        
        Animistic Thinking
        A preoperational mode of thought in which inanimate objects are imagined to have life and mental processes.
        
        Centration
        A preoperational thought pattern involving the inability to take into account more than one factor at a time.
        
        Irreversibility
        The inability, in the preoperational child, to think through a series of events or mental operations and then mentally reverse the steps.
        
        3. Concrete Operational Stage
        
        Children have mastered conservation and develop the ability to perform mental operations with images of concrete, tangible objects but may not be capable of abstract thought.
        
        7–11 years
        
        Conservation
        The understanding that the physical properties of an object or substance do not change when appearances change but nothing is added or taken away
        
        Mental Operation
        
        Solving a problem by manipulating images in one’s mind.This allows concrete operational children to think things through before taking action. As a result, they may be less impulsive.
        
        However, their ability to develope abstract thoughts/ reasoning are still limited.
        
        1. Sensorimotor Stage
        
        The first stage in Piaget’s theory, during which the child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli.
        
        Birth – 2 years
        
        Sensorimotor Intelligence
        
        At this stage, the child has no understanding of temporaity or reality neither can he reason. His approach to the world is heavily dependant on his physical senses.
        
        Piaget referred to the infant’s approach to the world, relying on simple physical (motor) responses to sensory experience as Sensorimotor Intelligence-
        
        For example, children learn to swivel their head to see something behind them, and then to crawl or walk toward it if they desire the object.
        
        Object Permanence
        
        Through sensorimotor intelligence, babies work towards object permanence or the knowledge that objects exist independently of one’s own actions or awareness. Usally starts at 9 months.
        
        For example, if you show an infant a toy and then let her see you hide it under a blanket, she will look for it under the blanket.
        
        Goal-directed Behavior
        
        An ability that emerges during the sensorimotor period by which infants develop the ability to keep a simple goal in mind as they pursue it.
        
        For example, a child who drops a spoon might be very interested in the clatter it makes as it bounces off a tile floor and wants to repeat the action over and over again.
        
        Mental Representation
        
        The ability to form internal images of objects and events.
        
        The emergence of object permanence, combined with an infant’s increasing experiments with goal-directed behavior, provide substantial evidence that infants are beginning to form mental representations of objects and to recognize their own relation to the world.
        
        4. Formal Operational Stage
        
        Develop ability for abstract reasoning and hypothetical thought.
        
        11- Audlthood
        
        Strength and Limited.
        
        Strength: Claims are testable and falsifiable (I.e. is the child facing a problem with conservation). Claims are also widely supported with other research.
        
        Limitation: There is no explicit theoretical explanation on how a child transition from one stage to another.
      - Schema
        
        In Piaget’s theory, a mental structure or program that guides a developing child’s thought.
        
        They are also the building blocks of development.
        
        Changes with the process of assimilation and accomodation.
        
        Assimilation and accommodation
        
        Two dynamic processes underlie all cognitive growth.
        
        Piaget suggests that these two mechanics drove the child trhough his developmental stages
        
        Accommodation
        
        A mental process that modifies or restructures schemas in order to include (or accommodate) new information.(Changing how you do things or group information)
        
        For example, when a child encounters a bat, she will have to create a new schema for “bat,” since it is a creature with wings but is not a bird.
        
        Assimilation
        
        A mental process that incorporates new information into existing schemas (Expanding the range of things you respond to).
        
        For example, a child experiences assimilation when she learns that a parrot is a type of bird.
  - - - 1. Babbling
        The production of repetitive syllables, characteristic of the early stages of language acquisition. Occurs at 4 months.
      - 2. One-Word Stage
        At 1 years old, babies enter the one-word stage and are speaking full words. They are also learning new words quite rapidly For example children seem to delight in their efforts to point to objects and name them.
      - 3. Two-Word Stage
        At 2 years old, children enter the two-word stage, which tremendously increases the range of meanings they can convey. At that point, the average child has a vocabulary of nearly 1,000 different words
      - 4. Telegraphic speech Short, simple sequences of nouns and verbs without plurals, tenses, or function words like 'the' and 'of'.
        For example, “Ball hit Evie cry”
      - 5. Morpheme
        A meaningful unit of language that makes up words. Some whole words are morphemes (example: word); other morphemes include grammatical components that alter a word’s meaning (examples: -ed, -ing, and un-).
  - - - Level 2: conventional morality
        
        Stage 3: Individual behaves morally in order to gain approval
        from other people.
        
        Stage 4: Conformity to authority to avoid censure and guilt.
      - Level 3: post-conventional morality
        
        Stage 5: Individual is concerned with individual rights and
        democratically decided laws.
        
        Stage 6: Individual is entirely guided by his or her own
        conscience.
      - Level 1: pre-conventional morality
        
        Stage 1: Individual obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.
        
        Stage 2: Individual conforms to society's rules in order to receive
        rewards.
  - - - Authoritarian parents
        One of the four parenting styles, characterized by demands for conformity and obedience, with little tolerance for discussion of rules, which the parent enforces with punishment or threats of punishment.
      - Permissive parents One of the four parenting styles, characterized by setting few rules and allowing children to make their own decisions. While they may be caring and communicative, permissive parents give most decision-making responsibility to their children.
      - Authoritative parents One of the four parenting styles, characterized by high expectations of the children, which the parent enforces with consequences rather than punitive actions. Authoritative parents combine high standards with warmth and respect for the child’s views.
      - Uninvolved parents characterized by indifference or rejection, some- times to the point of neglect or abus
    - - 3–6 years
        Initiative vs. guilt
        
        Adequate Resolution Confidence in oneself as being able to initiate, create
        
        Inadequate Resolution Feelings of guilt over one’s limitations or inabilities
      - 6 years to puberty
        Industry vs. inferiority
        
        Adequate Resolution erceived competence in basic social and intellectual skills; self-acceptance
        
        Inadequate Resolution Lack of self-confidence; feelings of failure
      - Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion
        
        Adequate Resolution Comfortable sense of self as a person, both unique and socially accepted
        
        Inadequate Resolution Sense of self as fragmented, shifting, unclear sense of self
      - Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation
        
        Inadequate Resolution Feeling of loneliness, separation; denial of intimacy need
        
        Adequate Resolution Capacity for closeness and commitment to another
      - 11⁄2–3 years Autonomy vs. shame or self-doubt
        
        Inadequate Resolution Feelings of inadequacy about self-control, control of events
        
        Adequate Resolution Perception of self as agent; capable of controlling one’s own body and making things happen
      - Middle adulthood
        Generativity vs. stagnation
        
        Adequate Resolution Focus of concern beyond oneself, to family, society, future generations
        
        Inadequate Resolution Self-indulgent concerns; lack of future orientation
      - 0–11⁄2 years. Trust vs. mistrust
        
        Adequate Resolution Basic sense of safety, security; ability to rely on forces outside oneself
        
        Inadequate Resolution Insecurity, anxiety
      - Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair
        
        Adequate Resolution Sense of wholeness; basic satisfaction with life
        
        Inadequate Resolution Feelings of futility, disappointment
- - - - Extinction
        
        (in classical conditioning) The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.
        
        In the case of Pavlov's study, if the dog does not receive food after hearing the bell, the response (salivating) may weaken until eventually it cease.
      - Spontaneous Recovery
        
        The unexpected reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after extinction and after a period without exposure to the CS.
        
        In the case of Pavlov's study, if the dog suddenly salivates upon hearing a bell after extinction training without exposure to the bell sound over a period, he is undergoing spontaneous recovery.
      - Acquisition
        
        The initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
      - Stimulus Generalization
        The extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
        In the case of Pavlov's study, the dog may elicit salivation to the sound of other bells as well (Doorbell alarm bell). The dog generalizes this stimulus and exhibits the conditioned response.
        
        Example: John Watson's experiment on little Albert.
        
        Little Albert loved mice. So what Watson did, was to strike a metal bar, making a loud noise and startled Albert, causing him to cry each time Albert engages with a mouse.
        Soon, Albert began to exhibit signs of fearfulness upon engaging with the mouse even in the absence of a loud noise.
        
        Here, the UCS is the metal bar and loud noise. and the UCR is startling and crying.
        
        The CS would be the mouse and the CR would be fear.
        
        This CR also extended to other stimulus such as a rabbit.
      - Stimulus Discrimination
        Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not to stimuli that are
        similar.
        For example, as a child, you may have learned to salivate at the sound of the lunch bell, but—thanks to stimulus discrimination—your mouth probably didn’t water when the doorbell rang.
      - Terms to Note
        
        Unconditioned Stimulus
        
        In classical conditioning, UCS is the stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
        
        Conditioned Response
        
        In classical conditioning, a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
        
        Conditioned Stimulus
        
        In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response. Customarily, in a conditioning experiment, the neutral stimulus is called a conditioned stimulus when it is first paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
        
        Unconditioned response
        
        In classical conditioning, the response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
    - - Reinforcement
        
        Developed from Thorndike's Law of effect in which a particular behavioural response is reinforced with each successful trial. Think of Thorndike's cat experiment. (And what is it with researchers and cats. lol)
        
        One may mould a behavioural response through a process called: Shaping
        
        Positive/negative
        
        Positive Reinforcement
        A stimulus presented after a response and increasing the probability of that
        response happening again.
        
        Negative Reinforcement
        The reinforcement of behavior by the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus.
        
        Reinforcement Contingencies Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response.
        
        Type
        
        Continuous Reinforcement
        A type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced.
        
        Partial/ Intermittent Reinforcement
        
        A type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced; also called partial reinforcement.
        
        A big advantage of intermittent reinforcement is its resistance to extinction. Hence, it is a more effective method of reinforcement.
        
        Schedule of reinforcement
        A program specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements
        
        Ratio Schedule
        A program by which reinforcement depends on the number of desirable response
        
        Fixed Ratio
        A program by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses.
        Example: when workers are paid on a piecework basis—a certain amount of pay for a certain amount of production.
        
        Variable Ratio
        A reinforcement program by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial.
        Example: Telemarketers work on a VR schedule, because they never know how many calls they must make before they get the next sale, which acts as a reinforcer for the caller.
        
        Interval Schedule
        A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement.
        
        Fixed Interval
        A program by which reinforcement is contingent upon a certain, fixed time period.
        Example: commonly occur in the work world, where they may appear as a periodic paycheck
        
        Variable Interval
        A program by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial.
        Example: Fishing
        
        Shaping
        An operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar (aproximation) to the desired response
        
        Reinforcers
        A Reinforcer is any stimulus that follows and strengthens a response/ Behaviour.
        
        Primary Reinforcer
        A reinforcer that has an innate basis because of its biological
        value to an organism.
        Example: Food. Therefore, in administering operant condition on an animal, you may want to use food as a reinforcement.
        
        Conditioned/ Secondary Reinforcer
        A stimulus, that acquires its reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers.
        Example: Money, Free vouchers, Praising a dog by saying "Good Boy!"
        
        Token Economy
        A therapeutic method, based on operant conditioning, by which individuals are
        rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary reinforcers. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges.
        
        Premack's principle or the Relativity theory of reinforcement
        
        A theory which explains that more probable behaviours can be used to reinforce less probable behaviours.
        
        For example: Letting a child watch cartoons after he or she have completed her homework. (The homework is a less probable behaviour but it is reinforced the act of watching cartoons)
      - Punishment
        An aversive consequence which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response. (Contrast with negative reinforcement.)
        
        Positive Punishment
        The application of an aversive stimulus after a response
        Example: Smacking a child for being rude
        
        Negative Punishment
        The removal of an attractive stimulus after a response
        Example: Confiscating a phone after the student used it to make lud calls.
        
        When does punishment Work
        
        when presented without delay
        
        • when consistent
        
        • when limited in duration and intensity
        
        • when consequence is logical
        
        • limited to the specific situation at hand
        
        • when no mixed messages are sent
        
        • when negative punishment is used