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Evolution (Chapter 40 - Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function…

- - - - Animals have a way to regulate temperature and solute by maintaining a set point
        
        From the set point stimulus detected by a sensor will try to change to get back to the fix point if any variables are above or below the the set point
    - - Reacting to a change
        
        Negative feedback
        
        is a form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows the process
        
        Sweating
        
        Positive feedback
        
        Child birth
        
        is a form or regulation in which an end product of a process speeds up the process
    - - Keeping and maintenance of an internal balance
    - - One big factor in changes in Homeostasis is time and how we sync mechanics that drive homeostatic to work with it
        
        Circadian rhythm
        
        a set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
    - - Regulator
        
        Endothermic
        
        is an animal that uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation
      - Conformer
        
        is an animal that lets external change internal conditions
        
        Exothermic
  - - - The process how animals maintain there body temperatures within a normal range.
        
        Variation in Body Temperature
        
        Animals also differ in whether their body temperature is variable or constant
        
        Poikilotherm
        
        An animal whose body temp is varies from its environment
        
        Fish
        
        Homeotherm
        
        An animal whose has a relatively constant body temp
        
        Humans
        
        Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
        
        Evaporation
        
        Is the removal of heat from the surface by losing some of its molecules as gas
        
        evaporation of water in a lizard’s moist parts of its body that is exposed to the environment has a strong cooling effect
        
        Convection
        
        The transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid
        
        A breeze contributes to heat loss from a lizard’s dry skin or when blood moves form the core of the lizard outward.
        
        Radiation
        
        emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer then absolute zero
        
        A lizard absorbs heat form the sun and radiates a small amount to the surrounding areas.
        
        Conduction
        
        Direct transfer of heat by touch
        
        it’s when a lizard has direct transfer from a hot rock its sitting on
        
        Endothermy and Ectothermy
        
        Endothermic
        
        regulates its body temperature separate from its environment.
        
        Humans
        
        Ectothermic
        
        lets the environment influence its body temperature and gain more of there heat from and external source
        
        Fish
        
        Insulation
        
        reducing the flow of heat between an animal and it environment
        
        Hair, feathers, fur, and fat
        
        Circulatory Adaptation
        
        Regulating the blood flow form the inside of the body to the outside
        
        Counter-current Exchange
        
        mechanism is the transfer of heat between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions
        
        Arteries and Veins
        
        Circulatory system
        
        Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
        
        Its sweating, all its trying to say that we (mammals) have to find was to cool off and worm up at different times and how we do
        
        one way we cool off is by sweating and how we warm up is by shivering
        
        Behavioral Responses
        
        Some ways we keep homeostasis is what we constantly do our self
        
        One way dragonflies do this is by sticking there back ends up so less of the body id hit by the sun cooling them off
        
        Dragonflies also spreed there wings to increases the surface area that is exposed to the sun to worm up
        
        Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production
        
        Endotherms have to keep up there heat production to there heat loss
  - - - Organ Systems in Mammals
        
        Immune and Lymphatic
        
        Body defense (fighting infections and virally induced cancers)
        
        Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
        
        Excretory #
        
        Disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
        
        Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
        
        Respiratory #
        
        Gas exchange (uptake of O2: disposal of CO2)
        
        Lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
        
        Endocrine
        
        Coordination of body activates (such as digestion and metabolism)
        
        Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
        
        Circulatory #
        
        Internal distribution of materials
        
        Heart, blood vessels, blood
        
        Reproductive
        
        Gametes production; promotion of fertilization; support of developing embryo
        
        Ovaries or testes and associated organs
        
        Digestive #
        
        Food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
        
        Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
        
        Nervous
        
        Coordination of body activates; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
        
        Brian, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
        
        Integumentary
        
        Protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
        
        Skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, sweet glands
        
        Skeletal
        
        Body support, protection of internal organs, movement
        
        Skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
        
        Muscular
        
        Locomotion and other movement
        
        Skeletal muscles
    - - Many animals cant make essential nutrient needing to have some type of environment exchange
        
        Digestive system
        
        Food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
        
        Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
        
        Respiratory system
        
        Gas exchange (uptake of O2: disposal of CO2)
        
        Lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
        
        Excretory system
        
        Disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
        
        Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
        
        Circulatory system
        
        Internal distribution of materials
        
        Heart, blood vessels, blood
    - - Physical Law
        
        governs strength,diffusion, moment, and heat exchange limit the range of animal forms
        
        Seals, Penguin, and tune must adapt to its environment
        
        Convergent Evolution
        
        also influence animal body plans when it come s to maximum size
        
        As bodies got bigger the need for thicker skeletons where needed
        
        in-turn needed muscles where need to support the size and nutrients to keep them moving and alive
    - - Simple Columnar Epithelium
        
        Big block shaped cells
        
        found where secretion AND absorption are important
        
        . Found in intestines secreting digestive juices and absorbing nutrients
      - Stratified Squamous Epithelium
        
        New cells mad at the bottom push upward replacing old ones as a form of protection
        
        . Found in the mouth, anus, and vagina
        
        It’s the only MULTILAYERED and it regenerates fast
      - Cuboidal Epithelium
        
        Made for secretion
        
        Makes up kidney tubules and lots of glands like the thyroid and salivary gland
        
        Tube like made from dice-shaped cell
      - Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
        
        Some Pseudostratified epithelium are Ciliated cells (Small hairs that help moving things along the body) make a mucous membrane that lines some of the respiratory tract
        
        The hairs help move film along the surface
        
        A single layer or cells differentiating in height and position in their nuclei
      - Simple Squamous Epithelium
        
        used for the exchange of material by DIFUSION
        
        Lining blood vessels and air sacks found in lungs where diffusion of nutrients and gases are critical
        
        A small single layer, plate like or a normal one but it was flattened
    - - Adipose
        
        is loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix.
      - Cartilage
        
        made of collagenous fibers it a rubbery protein. Its place holder for vertebrate embryos until it is replaced with bone. Some stay like disks that act like cushions between vertebrae
      - Bone
        
        a connective tissue consisting of living cells held in a rigid matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts
      - Blood
        
        a liquid extracellular matrix called plasma made of water, salts, and dissolved proteins. Floating the plasma are red blood cells and white blood cells and platelets. Red move O2 around the body, white is acting like a defense, and platelets help in blood clotting
      - Fibrous Connective
        
        its dense and made of collagenous fibers. Found in tendons, connecting muscles to bone and in ligaments connecting bones to joints
      - Lose Connective
        
        Being all three types of fiber its hold organs in place. Gets its name from the loose weaving of its fibers
      - Type of Fibers
        
        Reticular Fibers – join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
        
        Elastic Fibers – makes tissues elastic
        
        Collagenous Fibers – provide strength and flexibility
    - - Smooth
        
        it responsible for involuntary body movement. Like constriction of arteries and the stomach
        
        found in the digestive tract and other internal organs
      - Cardiac
        
        found in the walls that make up the heart, its striated like skeletal muscle and had similar contractile properties
        
        But unlike skeletal it has branched fibers that interconnect via intercalated disks, with relay signals from cell to cell helping synchronize heart contraction
      - Skeletal
        
        Made-up of muscle fibers which can get bigger but never gaining muscle fibers
        
        connect to bone is responsible for voluntary movement
    - - One big part is the brain and nerves that send impulses to and from the brain
      - It functions in receipt, processing, and transmission of information
      - Gila
        
        cells that help support, regulate, and augment the functions of neurons
      - Axon
        
        a process of a neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body towards target cells
      - Dendrite
        
        – they reserve impulses from other neurons
    - - Animals Have 2 major systems for coordinating and controlling responses to stimuli
        
        Nervous system
        
        neurons transmit signals along dedicated routes connecting specific locations in the body
        
        Endocrine system
        
        signaling molecules released into the bloodstream by endocrine cells are carried to all locations in the body
        
        Hormones
        
        signaling molecules that ar broadcast throughout the body
  - - - determines nutritional needs and is related to the animal's size, activity, and environment.
        
        Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
        
        BMR - basal metabolic rate
        
        is he metabolic rate when something is not growing, is at rest, has an empty stomach, and not under stress is known as the minimum metabolic rate
        
        SMR - standard metaolic
        
        is a fasting, non-stressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature. One is the bare minimum need to live and the other is the amount needed for everyday life
        
        Influences on Metabolic Rate
        
        Metabolic rate is affected by many factors other then an animal being an endotherm or an ectotherm
        
        Sex, age, size, nutrition, tempareture
        
        Quantifying Energy Use
        
        Metabolic rate
        
        a sum of the energy use at any given time
        
        Energy is measured joules (j) or calories (cal) and Calorie is with a big (C)
        
        Size and Metabolic Rate
        
        The bigger the animal the more energy is need to live and move
        
        Energy Allocation and Use
        
        page 888
        
        Activity and Metabolic Rate
        
        Being active and moving around to setting on a deck use up energy the more you move the more or higher your metabolic rate
        
        Torpor and Energy Conservation
        
        is a physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
        
        Hibernation
        
        is a long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
        
        Estivation
        
        is the summer equivalent of hibernation, enable animals to survive long periods of high temp and scarce water
- - - - Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination (41.2)
        
        Ingestion
        
        the act of feeding or feeding
        
        Substrate Feeders
        
        organism that lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food
        
        maggots
        
        Fluid Feeder
        
        organisms that feed on the fluid of other organisms
        
        Hematophagy
        
        1 more item...
        
        Nectarivore
        
        1 more item...
        
        tsetse fly, bees
        
        Filter Feeders
        
        such as the humpback whale shown above move water through a filtering structure to obtain food
        
        feeding by filtering out plankton or nutrients suspended in the water
        
        Bulk Feeders
        
        eat relatively large pieces of food
        
        humans
        
        Digestion
        
        the process of breaking down food by mechanical and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal into substances that can be used by the body
        
        absorption
        
        animal's cell's take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars
        
        1 more item...
      - Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite (41.5)
        
        Vertebrates store excess calories in glycogen and in fat
        
        Glycogen
        
        in the liver and in the muscle cells
        
        Fat
        
        in adipose cells
        
        These energy stores can be tapped when animal expends more calories then it consumes
        
        If an animal consumes more calories then need it will store it as fat and obesity
        
        Several hormes regulate appetite by affecting the brain's satiety center
        
        Nutrition is regulated at multiple levels
        
        Food intake triggers nervous and hormonal responses that cause secretion of digestive juices
        
        The hormones insulin and glucagon control the synthesis and brake down of glycogen so regulating glucose availability
        
        promoting movement of ingested material though the canal
        
        diabetes
        
        Type 1 diabetes
        
        is a chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin
        
        Type 2 diabetes
        
        a long-term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin
      - An animal's diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential nutrients (41.1)
        
        Minerals
        
        inorganic nutrients
        
        iron and sulfur
        
        Undernourishment
        
        When a diet fails to provide enough chemical energy
        
        Vitamins
        
        any of a group of organic compounds that are essential for normal growth and nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet because they cannot be synthesized by the body
        
        Vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B vitamins: thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyroxidine (B6), biotin (B7), folate (B9) and cobalamin (B12). The four fat-soluble vitamins-A, D, E, and K-are stored in the body's fatty tissues
        
        Essential Fatty Acids
        
        linoleic and alpha-linolenic, cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from food
        
        basic fats, found in plant foods, are used to build specialized fats called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
        
        Assessing Nutritional Needs
        
        Finding a fix way to determine the ideal diet is hard problems scientist have found
        
        Everyone one is different in size and how they live there lives
        
        Essential amino acids
        
        Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body. As a result, they must come from food.
        
        The 9 essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine
        
        Macromolecule
        
        a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein, nucleic acid, or synthetic polymer
        
        proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
      - Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet (41.4)
        
        Mutualstic adaptations in Herbivores
        
        Not being able to brake down some things like or able to make enzymes that are needed to brake down food we let large numbers of bacteria live inside us to do it for us
        
        Mutualistic Adaptions
        
        microbiome
        
        Microorganisms living in and on the body
        
        We have bacteria that help brake down food and protect us from many harmful things that get in to the body
        
        Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
        
        Evolutionary adaptations in diet are sometimes apparent as variation in the dimensions of digestive organs
        
        Adaptation is also apparent int he length of the digestive system in different vertebrates
        
        Dental Adaptaions
        
        Omnivore
        
        because they eat both meat and plants, have a combination of sharp front teeth and molars for grinding
        
        Herbivore
        
        have teeth that are highly specialized for eating plants
        
        Carnivore
        
        he meat eaters of the animal world, have very defined canine teeth for tearing at meat
      - Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system (41.3)
        
        Stomach Dynamics
        
        The brake down of food by gastric juices is enhanced by muscular activity of the stomach
        
        Digestion in the Small Intestine
        
        braking down of the specific nutrients
        
        Protein
        
        Pepsin, Pancreatic trypsin, chymotrypsin, Pancreatic carboxypeptidase, Dipeptidases, Carboxy-peptidase, Aminopeptidase
        
        Nucleic Acid
        
        Pancreatic nucleases, Nucleotidases, Nucleosidases and phosphatases
        
        Carbohydrate
        
        Salivary amylase, Pancreatic amylases, Disaccharidases
        
        Fat
        
        Pancreatic lipase
        
        Digestion in the Stomach
        
        Stomach
        
        Storage
        
        Making food in to a liquid
        
        Absorption in the Small Intestine
        
        Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here
        
        The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
        
        Esophagus
        
        the part of the alimentary canal that connects the throat to the stomach
        
        it has to choosing and seeing that the right materials goes to the right hole making sure that no food and liquid inters the trachea that may cause chocking
        
        Pharynx
        
        the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus
        
        Oral Cavity
        
        where the food posses begins
        
        We chew and salivary glands let out saliva to brake down and increasing surface area
        
        Processing in the Large Intestine
        
        nutrients released by gut bacteria and dissolved in water are also absorbed in the large intestine and used by the body for metabolism
        
        The dried, condensed fecal matter is finally stored in the rectum and sigmoid colon
        
        until it can be eliminated from the body through the process of defecation
        
        Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
        
        The stomach releases gastric juice to brake down food to turn it in to a mixer of the two called chyme
        
        Hydrochloric acid
        
        Digestive Hormines
        
        Secretin
        
        Secretin is secret by duodenum cells
        
        Secretin secretion is stimulating by acid chyme (food from stomach)
        
        Secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidic chyme
        
        Secretin also stimulates the liver to release bile
        
        CCK (cholecystokinin)
        
        CCK is secreting by the small intestine (mainly duodenum & jejunum)
        
        CCK secretion is stimulating by the food present in the small intestine
        
        Gastrin
        
        Gastrin is secreted by stomach
        
        The presence of food in the stomach stimulates secretion of the gastrin into the circulatory system
        
        Gastrin in-turn stimulates the secretion of gastric juice in the stomach.
        
        GIP (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide)
        
        GIP is secreted by the duodenum
        
        GIP secretion is stimulating by the food in the duodenum
        
        It counteracts the effects of gastrin that is it inhibits gastric glands and slow down stomach emptying if there is food in the duodenum
        
        Motilin
        
        Motilin is in the duodenum, increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility, and stimulates the production of pepsin
  - - - Teeth, the back for eating plants and the fangs to rip flesh
  - - - Have sharp teeth that help ripping flesh off
  - - - rumen has bacteria and microbes which help them in the nutrient extraction process when eating grass