Nature versus Nurture: PHOBIAS
Nurture - Learning Theory
Nature
Social learning theory states that we learn from our direct and indirect experiences.
Social Learning theory:
- Behaviour is modelled
A parent is scared of spiders (fear response) - Behaviour is observed
Observed by their children/child - The observer then forms an internal mental representation
- Consequences of behaviour is observed
- Observer is vicariously reinforced
- Expectancies of future outcomes are added to internal mental representation.
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Seligman
Preparedness: a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily/easily than others. Eg. We are scared of things that challenge survivals= such as heights and dangerous animals
Coombes et al:
Classical Conditioning states that we learn a new behaviour from association. So, phobias can be acquired by associative learning .
Nature- About survival so people fear things that may harm them
Evolution : We have natural built in fears to keep us safe and protect us from harm. They are genetically passed on through families and are more common ( Eg - Lions, insects, heights)
Bennett-Levy and Marteau
Neutral Stimulus+Unconditioned Stimulus
Evidence: Hunt (1995)- Monkeys had no bad experience with snakes, so they didn’t know that they could fear it. They were put a banana in front of a snake and just took without being scared.
After watching another monkey being scared, the phobia is developed.
Although this initially supports Nurture and SLT, the monkeys did NOT have the same response to flowers when the same thing was done with them - showing that it is not just nurture - we are pre-programmed to fear certain things over others.
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Operant conditioning
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According to operant conditioning, phobias can be negatively reinforced, where a behaviour is strengthened as an unpleasant consequence is removed.
Little Albert
Watson and Raymer wanted to demonstrate the scientific status of Psychology and also prove the principles of Behaviourism – the idea that all behaviour, including human behaviour, is learned. Watson intended to show that powerful emotions were not innate to human beings, but were learned responses to experiences. To do this, he proposed to create an intense fear – a phobia – in a human subject, a 9 month old baby boy.
For example, if someone with a phobia of cats sees a cat, the person will/might avoid the cat, as the avoidance reduces the distress (negative emotion) felt by that person. This increases the repetition of said behaviour in the future to continue maintaining the avoidance of the phobia.
Evidence: Little Albert
The aim of the experiment was to see if it is possible to induce a fear of a previously neutral stimulus through classical conditioning. The white rat was used as the neutral stimulus as it did not elicit a response from Albert. Whenever a hammer was hit (UCS), Little Albert would show fear (UCR).
During the conditioning phase, Little Albert was shown a white rat. When he reached out to touch the rat the hammer was banged. The noise would frighten him so the white rat became a CS which produced a CR (fear)
This suggests that it is possible to produce a fear response to an originally neutral stimuli through association using classical conditioning
There are three types of happiness:
Pleasure and gratification
Strength and virtue
Meaning and purpose
Essentially, phobias are acquired through classical conditioning/social learning theory are maintained through operant conditioning (negative reinforcement)
Heinrichs: cultural differences in fears.
Deconditioning
Jones' Study (1924)
Aim: To investigate whether a phobia in a little boy could be reconditioned and whether this would generalise to other objects.
Unconditioned Response
Evidence: Pavlov's Dog
The UCS (food) produces an UCR (salivation)
They got a neutral stimulus (bell) which produced no response
During the conditioning phase: paired the NS with the UCS to produce an UCR
This then makes the NS become a CS because it produces a CR
Once Pavlov did it enough times, the dog salivated when the bell rung
Pavlov found that a neutral stimulus can be associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicit a conditioned response (association is made)
NatureThe study of the fear of animals. Two questionnaire about 29 animals, (1) about closeness and (2) how the participants felt about the animals.People were less likely to approach ugly or slimy, speedy or sudden animals. They were more afraid of these animals.Features of ugliness, sliminess, speediness and sudden movement all make animals more frightening. Many animals which cause phobias look like this, which supports the idea that preparedness relates to an animal’s feature. It supports that preparedness causes phobia
For example someone might watch their mother being scared of rats then later develop a fear of rats due to their role model mother being afraid of them
This theory suggests that people learn phobias by watching others.
- Coombes let two rats drink from a spout of water
- He then gave an injection to one of them to make it sick
- Both rats avoided drinking from the spout as the rat who had not been sick learnt from the rat being sick to avoid it
Evidence: Little Albert
The Experiment: Little Albert, by Watson and Rayner (1920). They conducted an experiment to prove classical conditioning for nurture. 'Little Albert' was exposed to different neutral stimuli and showed a positive or no response towards them. But when it was associated with an unconditioned stimulus over time and repetition the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus and he showed a conditioned stimulus of fear after seeing anything white and fluffy.
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AIM:They wanted to see if being brought up in differences cultures affected social anxiety and fear of blushing.
PROCEDURE: 909 psychology students were tested. From 8 unis and 8 different countries. Volunteered to take part. They were divided into two groups, collectivist or individualistic cultures based on the cultures in where they lived. Individualistic cultures: Less social norms-USA, Australia, Canada, The Netherlands, Germany & Collectivist cultures: More social norms - Spain, Korea, Japan
PROCEDURE #2: Given a short description of a social situation and asked to say how they would react. If they said they would speak up/answer the problem that would be a low anxiety answer. If they said they would do nothing that would be a high anxiety answer.
FINDINGS: Highest social anxiety: Japan Korea Spain Middle: USA Canada Lowest social anxiety: Australia The Netherlands Germany
FINDINGS: Collectivist cultures show greater social anxiety and fear of blushing than individualistic cultures, because they have stricter rules about acceptable behaviour. If someone breaks a social norm they will experience a greater punishment, makes them more anxious. The behaviour of an individual affects the whole group. In individualistic cultures a high value is placed on individuality. It is important to stand out from the crowd, shyness may be a burden
Curio 1988
- Curio put two blackbirds in separate cages - a 'learner' and a 'teacher'
- The 'teacher' could see a stuffed owl (dangerous to blackbirds and the 'learner' could see a honeyeater (harmless)
- The 'teacher' produced an alarm call which the 'learner could hear but could only see the honeyeater
- Eventually the 'learner' would imitate an alarm call when it saw a honeyeater
Mineka et al
- Mineka et al found out that their wild-born lab monkeys were afraid of snakes however the ones born in captivity were not afraid of anything
- They tested the wild-born monkeys by watching their reactions to different objects (snakes: real, toys and models) + other things (black and yellow cord, triangles)
- They found out that the monkeys were only afraid of snakes (labs were not afraid of anything)
- The lab monkeys then watched a wild-born monkey reacting to different things - they feared snakes but nothing else
Shows that monkeys can learn fears through social learning theory and since we are similar to them, suggests we can too.