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Psychopathology (Definitions of abnormality (Failure to function…

- - - - Cultural relativism, as behaviour considered abnormal varies for different cultures.
      - Can lead to human right abuses of control over minority groups, e.g. woman.
      - Not sole explanation as many other factors cold contribute, e.g. antisocial personality disorder causing distress to others.
  - - - Could simply be deviation from norms, e.g. Those without stable address may simply choose to live alternate lifestyles.
      - Captures the subjective experience of patients.
      - Subjective judgment for deciding whether someone failing to function properly, e.g. distress.
  - - - Some unusual characteristics don't require treatment, e.g. IQ above 130.
      - Unusual people may not benefit from label, e.g. those with low IQ may live happily, but being labelled abnormal may have negative effect.
      - Real life application in diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.
  - - - Broad & comprehensive definition.
      - Culture relativism, variations between individualist & collectivist cultures.
      - Unrealistic high standards for mental health, very few could attain this.
- - - - Acquisition by classical conditioning:
        
        Unconditioned stimulus creates unconditioned response (fear).
        
        US associated with neutral stimulus.
        
        NS becomes conditioned response.
        -CS then causes conditioned stimulus of fear.
      - Maintenance by operant conditioning:
        
        Negative reinforcement means person avoids unpleasant situation.
        
        Escapes anxiety, therefore maintains behaviour.
    - - Alternative explanation for avoidance, may be motivated by seeking safety. e.g. agoraphobia, some can leave house with trusted relative.
      - Incomplete explanation as doesn't account for biological preparedness - innate predisposition to acquire certain fears.
      - Good explanatory power.
  - - - Evaluation
        
        Effective, e.g. Gilroy et al:
        
        42 arachnophobic patients.
        
        45 min session.
        
        Phobia assessed, including questionnaire.
        
        Control group had relaxation without exposure.
        
        3 & 33 months after, treatment group better than control.
        
        Suitable for diverse range of patients compared to flooding & CBT.
        
        Acceptable as not traumatic (flooding).
      - Counter-conditioning - new response to phobic stimulus learnt.
        
        Anxiety hierarchy of lowest anxiety situations to highest.
        
        Therapist teaches relaxation techniques.
        
        Patient exposed to situations on hierarchy, bottom to top.
    - - Evaluation
        
        Less effective for some phobias, e.g. social phobias as involves cognitive thinking.
        
        Traumatic experience, higher dropout risk.
        
        Cost -effective as relieved quickly & cheaply.
      - Immediate exposure to phobic stimulus.
        
        Extinction - extinguishes learnt response by encountering conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus.
        
        Full informed consent given.
- - - - Low serotonin level affects transportation of mood information & therefore mental processes.
      - Malfuntion in frontal lobe - decision making, & parahippocampal gyrus - unpleasant emotions.
      - Evaluation
        
        The neural mechanisms involved not clear.
        
        Shouldn't assume that abnormal function directly causes OCD.
        
        Supporting evidence, e.g. antidepressants only working on the serotonin system reduces OCD symptoms.
    - - OCD is polygenic- caused by multiple genes,
      - One group of genes may / may not cause OCD depending on the person.
      - Candidate genes: Genes that may be involved in producing OCD symptoms, e.g. 5HT1-D beta.
      - Evaluation
        
        Too many candidate genes, therefore little predictive evidence.
        
        Environmental factors, e.g. Cromer:
        
        Over half OCD patient in sample had a traumatic event.
        
        More traumatic, the worse OCD.
        
        Supporting evidence, e.g. Nestadt et al:
        
        68% identical & 31% non-identical twins share OCD.
  - - - Cost-effective & non-disruptive, i.e. attending therapies.
      - Effective - Soomro et al (2009)
        
        Compared SSRIs to placebos.
        
        Better results for SSRIs.
      - Has side-effects.
- - - - Negative self-schemas
      - Negative triad:
        
        Negative view of world.
        
        Of the future.
        
        Of the self.
      - Faulty information processing:
        
        Ignore positive & focuses on negative.
        
        Absolutist thinking
    - - A Activating agent:
        
        Negative event that triggers response.
      - B Beliefs:
        
        Irrational beliefs, e.g. musturbation (belief to always achieve perfection).
      - C Consequences:
        
        Depressive results to over-reacting to negative events.
      - Evaluations
        
        Practical application in CBT.
        
        Doesn't explain all aspects of depression, e.g. Anger, hallucinations.
        
        Only applies to some kinds of depression.
    - - Doesn't explain all aspects of depression, e.g. hallucinations, bizarre beliefs, Cotard syndrome (delusion that they are zombies).
      - Practical application in CBT.
      - Good supporting evidence, e.g. Grazioli & Terry:
        
        65 pregnant woman.
        
        More likely suffer post-natal depression if judged vulnerable.
  - - - May not work for severe cases.
      - Success may be due to therapist-patient relationship.
      - Evidence for effectiveness, e.g. March et al:
        
        327 adolescents.
        
        After 36 weeks.
        
        81% CBT & antidepressants, 86% both improved.