Principles of Design
References
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1999). Managing split-attention and redundancy in multimedia instruction. Applied Cognitive Psychology,13. p. 351-371.
Norman, D. (2013). The design of everyday things. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Cognitive Load Theory/Split-Attention: learning inhibited by having to split attention and then integrate graphic and text
mental integration as a necessary precursor to learning (Kalyuga, et al.,1999)
Redundancy Effect: when text redundantly describes information readily comprehensible within a contained image, "integration of the redundant information with essential information imposes a cognitive load that interferes with the learning process," (p. 351).
"Physical integration of related elements of diagrams and text reduces working memory load and enhances learning," (Kalyuga, et al., 1999, p. 351).
Instructional Modality Effect: when instructional choice impacts CLT (i.e., verbal information accompanies a graphic does not hinder working memory as much as text would)
Experiments from Kalyuga, et al. (1999)
Experiment #1: can instructional modality be used to circumvent the cognitive load associated with split-attention
Physical integration is a possible workable instructional treatment
Conditions: Modality Effect
1: Visual Text, n=11
2: Audio Text, n=11
3:Visual plus Audio Text, n=12
self-paced computer-based instruction
variables: #reattempts of exercises during 1st test phase, subjective rating scale data, fault-finding scores, question answering scores
favored
Measure of instructional effectiveness = from Paas & von Merrienboer (1993, 1994): participant subjective measures of cognitive load combined with measures of performance (z score conversion--> such that high performance= low cognitive load, high test perfomance
"Dual-mode instruc- tional presentations of text and diagrams do not eliminate split attention, but rather, increase available working memory capacity by combining, in part, the capacity of visual and auditory memory channels," (p. 362).
Obtained in Experiment 1 due to verbal overshadowing of visual memories (as per Schooler and Engstler-Schooler, 1990) --> verbalizing a visual stimulus impaired recognition performance
"Dual mode presentation only is effective when the two modes present different information that must be mentally integrated before it can be understood," (p. 362)
Experiment #2: can physical integration circumvent cognitive load associated with split attention. Hypoth: colour-coding might reduce WM load by reducing search processes involved with split-source informational formats
Conditions: mental integration via computer-based instructions for elementary electrical engineering; n=16 in Sydney company with minimum 10th grade completed
1)color-coded diagram and text
2) conventional separate-diagram-and text
variables: instruction time (time to process the instructions), subjective rating of mental load, test performance scores on fault-finding and multiple choice tasks
more instructional time, but not significant F(1,13)=2.42, MSe = 6246.63
More effective in learning gains, F(1,13)=7.01, MSe=1.12
lower subjective rating on cognitive load
"The colour-coding technique might be especially appropriate in computer-based instructional presentations because they allow manageable use of colours," (p. 366). But beware of too many colors --> no more than 5
Knowing What to Do: Constraints, Discoverability and Feedback (Normal, 2013)
Reflection: I really appreciate how Norman keeps relating back to how knowledge of the world and knowledge in the head affects us all, consumers, learners.
4 Constraint Types:
1) Physical:
2) Cultural: Norman (2013) nods to culture as an influential constraint because there is no universal standards for dealing with new machines
3) Semantic: "those that rely upon the meaning of the situation to control the set of possible actions," (p. 129).
4) Logical: logical relationship between spatial or functional layout of materials
Should be easily seen and interpreted (i.e., make the errors impossible)
Legacy Problem: when the standard is what needs to be modified, it effects too many products to be profitable
Superior Solution: Solves the fundamental/root need REGARDLESS of the Legacy!!
Reflection:This resonated with me because even though I am getting an intense, in depth education in IDT, sometimes it's important to remember the basics...ADDRESS THE ACTUAL NEED. When you keep that in mind, it's quite freeing and much less complicated. I'm also driven towards HPT approaches, so this was right on my wave length.
Reflection: I'm not sure I ever thought of it in this way, since so many foreign-made technologies are accessible. We struggle in this country with supporting U.S. made products. And when I have been abroad and leveraged other technologies, I have often preferred them (at least the personal devices, anyway).
Cultural norms as embedded schema/scripts & change with time (as shifts in culture happen)
Reflection:I laughed out loud at the counter example of a pregnant or elderly person offering their seat to an athletic person. It really drove home what my expectation is within the culture. However, I've experienced countless examples where people do not follow these cultural norms...and are often dismissed as rude.
rely on knowledge of situation/world; can change over time.
Ex: Red lights on cars mean stop. But once cars are automated...will red lights mean the same thing?
No Human Error; Bad Desiqn
Sometimes procedures/tasks cause people to act in unnatural ways; inappropriate rules that encourage/invite violations
Root Cause Analysis: investigate the accident until a singe underlying cause is found --> if human error is found, the work has just begun!
5 Whys
Reflection: My main reaction to this study was that I was not at all surprised by the results. However, it did give me some validation that some of my practices while a middle school Spanish teacher were sound. One way I visually integrated meaning/information for learners was within my Total Physical Response Storytelling instructional segments. Each day, I would introduce 3-4 new words/phrases. Actions/verbs were always written in red marker, nouns/phrases in blue, and adjectives in green. This was the standard for the year, such that with each lesson, the students could easily digest both the meaning through the physical response, and the part of speech through the color coding.
Two Types of Errors: Slips & Mistakes
Error: human error is any error that deviates from appropriate behavior; any wrong action
Slip: action performed not the same as that intended; most common --> made more commonly by experts than novices
Capture Slip: more frequently or recently performed action is completed in error. Implication for Design: avoid procedures with identical opening steps that then diverge.
Mistake: Wrong goal is established; wrong plan is formed
Rule-based Mistake: Person assesses situation, but takes wrong course of action --> follows wrong rule
Knowledge-based Mistake: Problem misdiagnosed to to misunderstanding/left out info
Memory-Lapse Mistakes: when there is forgetting at stages of goals, plans, or evaluations
Reflection:At first I was surprised by experts being the most guilty culprits of this, but it actually makes total sense. Sometimes experts have more split attention/cognitive load issues.
Description-Similarity Slip: acting upon an item similar to the target (i.e., throwing something into the toilet when you intended it for the laundry. Implication for Design: ensure controls/displays for different purposes are significantly different from one another
Memory Lapse Slip: usually caused by interruptions. Implications for design: minimize # of steps, provide vivid reminders
Mode-Error Slips: when a device has different states in which same controls have different meanings. Implications for Design: Avoid Modes, or make obvious which mode is invoked
Reflection: Main takeaway is that mistakes happen, tons of them. But it is our job as designers to try and minimize them.
A real concern with errors/mistakes is that there are social pressures AGAINST reporting your own errors (i.e., punishment, fines)