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Chapter 8 (Cognition
refers broadly to mental processes or thinking,…
Chapter 8
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Language
consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages
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Semantics
the area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations
Overextension
occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to
Telegraphic speech
consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted
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Underextensions
occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to
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Bilingualism
the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary and grammatical rules
Acculturation
the degree to which a person is socially and psychologically integrated into a new culture
language acquisition device (LAD)
an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
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Problem solving
refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
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Mental set
exists when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
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Insight
occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while
Trial and Error
involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works
Algorithm
a methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for the solution to a problem
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Field dependence-independence
refers to individuals' tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space
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Theory of bounded rationality
asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal
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Availability heuristic
involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
Representativeness heuristic
involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
Conjunction fallacy
occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone
Alternative outcomes effect
occurs when people's belief about whether an outcome will occur changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant
Gambler's fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the even hasn't occurred recently
Confirmation bias/Myside bias
the tendency to only seek information that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs
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Anagram
a word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters of a different word or phrase, typically using all the original letters exactly once.
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Overregularizations
Occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply