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Research Methods: Choice of Method and Research Process (Three key…
Research Methods: Choice of Method and Research Process
Positivism versus Interpretivism
Positivists
argue that there is a
measurable, objective social reality
that exists 'out there' just like the physical world.
They use standardised methods of research, such as
questionnaires, structured interviews, structured observation and official statistics
This enables them to obtain
reliable and representative quantitative data
They use this data to identify general patterns and trends in behaviour, from they produce cause-and-effect explanations like those in the natural sciences
They see our behaviour as the
result of social forces shaping what we do
, and the aim of research is to discover the
underlying causes of our behaviour
Interpretivists
claim that there is no objective social reality, just the subjective meanings that social actors give to events
Therefore, the aim of research is to uncover actor's meanings or worldview
This means using open-ended research methods that produce
valid, qualitative data
, such as
unstructured interviews, participant observation and personal documents
Such methods enable the sociologist to gain understanding by
experiencing the group's lifestyle for themselves
, or by allowing individuals to explain their worldview in their own worlds, without the sociologist imposing their own views on the research subjects
Question on a particular method: start answer by explaining why either positivists or interpretivists prefer to use that method - and why the other approach doesn't
Three key concepts to judge the usefulness of a research method
Reliability
For a method to be reliable, it must be
replicable
, i.e. exactly repeatable to obtain the same results, regardless of who actually carries out the research
Reliability also means using
standardised
forms of measurement. A reliable method creates data that can be used to systematically re-test hypotheses about social behaviour
Positivists favour a scientific approach, emphasising the need for reliability and therefore they use structured research methods that can be repeated, such as experiments, questionnaires and structured interviews
Positivists regard participation observation and unstructured interviews as unreliable because they cannot be repeated and do not use a standardised system of measurement
Representativeness
Sociologists cannot usually study ever member of the group they are interested in because generally there are simply too many of then.
Therefore, researchers may choose to study only a sample - a smaller sub group drawn from the wider target group
To be representative, the characteristics of the sample need to be the same as those of the wider group
This allows the researcher to be more confident that what is true for the sample is probably also true for the whole group
This means they will be able to make generalisations (statements about the wider group) on the basis of evidence from the sample
Positivists emphasise the importance of representativeness, because they wish to discover general patterns and make general cause-and-effect statements about social behaviour
Essential vocabulary
to use in answer to any question about methods.
Validity
Refers to how authentic and true the data is. The aim of any research is to 'get close to the reality' of a social situation
Interpretivists emphasise the need to use methods such as participant observation or unstructured interviews which reveal the meanings people hold.
Surveys, experiments and other structured research techniques are rejected because they do not reveal what social actors really think or how they act
Validity versus Reliability
Validity involves getting to a true account of people's meanings
Reliability involves measuring things in a standardised way that others can repeat
It is unlikely that a person's subjective meanings can be satisfactorily measured in an objective, standardised way.
Methods that are strong on validity are usually weak on reliability and vice versa
Primary and Secondary Data
Primary data is evidence collected by sociologists themselves for their own sociological purposes
This is material collected firsthand by researchers using methods such as questionnaires, observation and interviews
Secondary data is any information that has already been collected by someone else for their own purposes, and that may then be used by the sociologist
Official statistics, business records, media reports, diaries and personal documents are common forms of secondary data - as are the findings from existing sociological research that a later sociologist may go on to use
Choice of research method
Methodological preference
Positivists prefer quantitative data. In their view, the aim of research is to reveal cause-and-effect relationships. This requires quantitative data to identify patterns and trends in behaviour
Positivists thus prefer to use structured research techniques, e.g. questionnaires, which generate reliable, representative data
Interpretivists prefer qualitative data. In their view, the aim of research is to uncover the meanings people hold. The only way to do this is to allow them to act of speak in the ways they feel are appropriate.
This is best achieved by unstructured research methods such as participant observation and unstructured interviews, which produce valid, qualitative data
Practical factors
Time
- some methods usually take more time, e.g. participant observation studies and unstructured interviews take more time than questionnaires
Finance
- the finance available affects the number of researchers, respondents and the amount of research time
Some methods are cheaper than others, e.g. postal questionnaires are cheap because researchers do not have to spend long periods of time talking to respondents or observing their behaviour
Personal factors
- researchers have careers, family commitments etc, so they may not be able to do lengthy research in the field
Source of funding
- research sponsored by government,