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S7 - Language and communication (Language = who says what to whom by which…

- - - - Prosodic features of language
        
        timing
        
        pitch
        
        loudness
      - stress
        
        pauses
        
        non-linguistic sounds
        
        throat-clearing
        
        grunts
        
        sighs
  - - - Highlights:
        
        accent
        
        dialect
        
        inherent value hypothesis: the standard dialect becomes the prestige form of the language because it is the aesthetically ideal form of that language (false)
        
        imposed norm hypothesis: standard and non-standard dialects are equally aesthetically pleasing, but the non-standard form is viewed negatively because of social norms that are biased against it. (correct)
    - - Baby talk (BT)
      - Secondary baby talk
- - - - Facial expression
        
        when words and expression are contradictory, the face is often taken to be a more accurate guide to the meaning of what was said.
        
        provides an ongoing stream of information related to the person's emotional reactions during a conversation + the degree of attentiveness (as opposed to taking turns with verbal utterances)
        
        Self-presentation - our faces allow us to present ourselves to the world
        
        Gender effect: women more likely to smile than men in their photographs (PS: not for children)
        
        Different neural pathways for deliberate expression vs spontaneous expression
        
        Implication for research - might be some methodological problems
        
        Emotion-expression model: facial displays, including smiles, are innately linked to emotion and are therefore universal.
        
        dominant model for the social psychological understanding of the connection between emotion and facial display.
        
        Motive-communication model: facial displays are deliberately used to communicate particular social motives to the individuals being addressed
        
        facial displays do not relate directly to emotions, but instead to another factor correlated with the emotion: social motives.
        
        Supportive findings: facial displays reflecting emotion are more consistent among members of the same subculture or group than between members coming from different cultures or groups.
        
        Cultural differences p.223
        
        Differences may be related to the extent to which a society is individualistic or collectivist:
        
        For Americans emotion is viewed as something associated only with the individual, whereas for Japanese the individual's emotions are viewed as inseparable from those of the group (research: A looked at main characters, J at background characters)
        
        Findings: participants from IC generally more prone to express their emotions (particularly +)
        
        Differences may be related to differences in personality traits such as neuroticism and extroversion rather than to the individualistic or collectivist nature of the society
        
        Suggestion:
        
        in cultures where people are typically higher in neuroticism and lower in extroversion: individuals have less confidence that people's facial expressions are consistent with their emotions, whereas in cultures in which people are relatively
        
        in cultures in which people are relatively higher in extroversion and lower in neuroticism: there is a more open expression of emotion and therefore individuals can rely more upon people's facial expressions as reflecting their feelings.
        
        No strong link between specific facial patterns and specific emotions.
        Yet, people believe there is one possibly due to cognitive schema formation:
        
        As we grow up, we form schemata associated with various emotional states - children learn how to interpret facial presentations and what facial display correspond to which emotion. May observe various facial actions in association with anger in different instances. Gradually, a schema forms that is a composite of all these facial displays, which rarely appear all together.
        
        When asked to mime anger, the composite image is presented. Suggestion: this is what mimes and (amateur actors) also do when presenting a given emotion. Observing these mimes and actors reinforces the child's erroneous schema.
      - Reading faces
        The individual who cannot make correct inferences about another person's emotional state is unlikely to develop sensitivity to other people's pain.