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R3 - QL Research (3.1 Definition, characteristics and purpose of…

- - - - “an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and come to terms with meaning, not the frequency, of a certain more or less naturally occuring phenomena in the social world
      - Preissle - qualitative research concept is “vague, broad and inclusive enough to cover a variety of research practices that scholars have been developing”.
      - also be regarded as “the study of social phenomena and “on giving voice to the feelings and perceptions of the participants under study” (Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle 2006, 264).
      - -Merriam (2009, 13) - qualitative researches are for those who are interested in “understanding the meaning people have constructed, how people make sense of their world, and experiences they have in the world.
  - - - Research carried out in a natural setting
      - Broad questions are asked in order to explore, interpret, and to understand a social phenomena
      - Non-random methods used for selection of participant/s
      - Inductive in nature
      - Dynamic
      - Observation and interviews techniques are used for data collection
      - Hypotheses to be formed after data collection starts and keeps on changing
      - Report in narrative form and less structured
  - - - The nature of the purpose is such because the process is not to measure. BUT, it is to discover answers to questions through systematic and scientific procedures.
      - In order to achieve this purpose, qualitative research focuses on the WHAT, HOW, WHEN and WHERE of an issue or phenomena; and also the WHO, reality of the people involved, and WHY, the essence, ambience and justification from the participants’ perspective.
      - -To fulfill the purpose, the researcher must record, understand and describe the whole picture of the issue clearly and vividly.
      - -In doing so, concepts and structures that constitute an issue or a phenomena lead to the meaning of their perception, interpretation, action and practices and culture.
  - - - a. cannot be generalised
      - b. context too specific
      - c. the challenge to ensure no researcher effect
      - d. the integrity of researcher
- - - - ongoing analysis ------ ---- must be done without fail because data collected is in abundance and you may not be able to control the confusion and uncertainties about the data later on.
        
        -In the case of observation for example, there are actions and behaviours that you observe that are beyond your comprehension. -You need to interview him/her as soon as possible so that the teaching process you observed, for example, is still fresh in your mind.
        
        -By analysing the data right away, you would know exactly the context of the behaviours or actions that you would like to know deeper.
        -This also helps you to develop direction for future data collection.
        
        -Otherwise, the data collected are not managed properly and systematically and to leave enormous amount of data to final analysis only, does not seem appropriate in view of the nature of qualitative research.
  - - - a. Credibility ---- researcher must make sure what participants perceive, believe and practice are the same as the report of the research.
      - b. Valid evidence ---2. Valid evidence use data of high frequency, repeated engagement, prolonged and substantial involvement to guarantee validity of the interpretation of the process and interaction.
      - c. Analysing negative data ----3. Analysing negative data analysing data that are opposed to hypotheses to make sure that the data is truly irrelevant to the research.
      - d. Member checks ---4. Member checks analysis that have been completed are shared with the members of the research team or colleagues who are involved in the research. Irregularities can be identified by other readers.
      - e. Paying attention to voice ---5. Paying attention to voice recognising what participants stressed and emphasised and give these issues due position in the findings.
      - f. Doing external audit --6. Doing external audit data and findings of the research must be given to participants to go through or must be read and explained to them. Anything they disagree with must be taken out from the data or report.
  - - - search for similar categories
      - examine categories
      - assimilate and accomodate data
      - checking categories
      - grouped and classified units into categories
      - integrate categories
      - divide into units of meaning
        
        Units of meaning in the analysis refer to coding of data systematically.
        
        -Each data must be systematically managed and kept together to form an independent unit.
        
        -Then, data of the same kind should be grouped together.
        
        -As a result, there will be many units that have their own meaning or code.
        
        -This is done in line with the purpose and research questions.
        
        -When each unit of data is well organised, similar data can then be grouped together to form categories.
        
        -You have to create your own categories following the purpose and research questions.
        
        -After forming various categories, the categories are then put side by side to see where they can be assimilated or what group can accommodate the others.
        
        -In this case, some units can be subsumed under another group or some other groups.
        
        -At times, these new units lead to the development of another category or categories.
        
        -The next step is to look for similar categories.
        
        -This enables you to merge groups into smaller numbers, thus making the data more focussed.
        
        -When categories are developed, and there will be several, some will small and others bigger.
        
        -Examine the smaller ones, merge them with similar group if possible.
        
        -Examine also the bigger categories, as they might be better divided into another category.
        
        -When these processes have been completed, look at the whole list of categories to make sure they cover all the data.
        
        -In other words, the categories are exhaustive and representative of the data.
        
        -At the same time, also examine each category for overlapping.
        
        -Overlapping categories must be avoided because it will affect the quality of the research.
        
        -This can also lead to you missing an important category from the data.
        
        -Finally, integrate all the categories and establish a connection between them.
        
        -Also compare and contrast the categories and subcategories, and put them in the right position in the framework.
        
        -When they are put together in the framework, look for the patterns that may exist to explain the essence of the phenomena.
        
        -Patterns that are developed from these interconnections between categories lead to the emergence of various themes.
        
        -The themes represent the nature or the structures or the concepts that support the existence of the phenomena or events that is being research.
    - - -Data that has been collected must be transcribed, especially observation field notes and interviews, and must be kept systematically.
      - -They can be divided in terms of participants or data collection techniques.
      - -They should also be kept according to time and date, and each session of data collection session must be is properly numbered or coded.
      - -Raw data must also be separated from data that has undergone initial analysis.
      - -Use of colour to differentiate different categories of files is also practical.
      - -If data is not properly managed, final analysis will be very complex and difficult because the data has not undergone any analysis at all ... it is raw data!
    - - a. Important because it will differentiate each kind of data, time of collection and the participants.
      - b. Enhance the final analysis process.
      - c. Save time.
      - d. Avoid data from overlapping or mixing.
    - - a. Sorting process that group or separate data.
      - b. Enables you to take necessary action on the data, such as transcribing for analysis
      - c. Easy access to various data.
      - d. Enhances data analysis process.
      - e. Saves time and energy.
- - - - taking typical people from the research context -- i.e from a -social setting or context consists of people of various ages, roles and backgrounds. ---to understand and explore any aspect in the context,
        
        -For example, you want to study how teachers in a girl's school spend their free time after school.
        
        -Naturally, the participants are the teachers in a girl school.
        
        -And, if the focus is how female teachers spend their free time, then it is typical that female teachers would be the participants.
    - - generally - taking 2 extreme samples eg the best and the worst.
        
        -For example, take the case of quality teaching in a school. -Take the “worst teachers” or “the best teachers” and carry out a research on their teaching performance. -At the end, you will be able to understand how “the best” or “the worst”teachers perform their teaching in the classrooms.
    - - used when purpose is to explore the maximum differences on specified characteristics of a phenomena or issue.
      - maximum variation between participants ---to understand how the phenomena affects them and, consequently how they act and react to it.
      - all kinds of individuals must be represented and involved as participants of the research. ==> -Thus, the research will provide an in-depth and holistic understanding of the phenomena from multiple perspectives.
    - - when -If the purpose of the research is to explore an issue based on a specific theory, ====> the selection of participants must be in line with the requirements of the theory or theories.
        
        -For instance, let us say a researcher wants to explore quality teaching and learning in a classroom. -In this context, the theory stated that it involves many individuals, such as the instructor, students, course content developer, administrator and maybe even the technician. -In this regard, all these individuals must be involved and represented in the research as participants.-Otherwise, the research is meaningless because it does not fulfill the requirement of the theory.
      - -Components or constructs in the theory or theories must be fully understood and participants will be selected accordingly.
    - - comprehensive sampling for small context
      - participants are chosen in line with the purpose of the research.
      - identifying the various groups of people who exist and function in the phenomena of a context based on context of research
        -Then, choose several people to represent the various groups in line with the purpose of the research.
      - to be fair and wholesome, each group must be represented.
        -and choose participants to present each category accordingly.
    - - used when the researcher has no control over the participants. i.e -The researcher cannot choose participants accordingly due to certain constraints that cannot be negotiated.
        
        -For example, you want to study how novice, quite experienced and most experienced mathematics teachers, with the lowest score in their yearly appraisal in a boarding school, perform their teaching. ---> -Due to whatever reasons that you do not know, the principal gives you teachers with the highest score in the lower score group. --> -Since these are the participants given, you have to take them.
        
        -Or, you want to study a phenomenon and after initial engagement, only four people are willing to take part in the research.
      - -Even if the participants are not as you would like to have, you have no choice and you have to take them. AND -Consequently, you have to change the purpose and the research questions.
    - - when -No specific participants are identified beforehand. before collecting data ==> to explore a phenomenon within a certain context or community,
      - -The focus of the study is the phenomena, then only the people who are involved in the process. --
      - no of participants not the main issue -- but getting the relevant data ==> -Anyway, it needs to be managed and tailored to the purpose or the research questions formulated.
      - as a starting point go in, observe and start talking and asking questions about the phenomena to anyone in the context ===. -Then, ask the person to recommend someone whom he/she thinks can provide additional information.-The process goes on until the data is saturated.
    - - logical and straightforward sample alternatives based on purpose and research question
        
        -For example, if the purpose of the study is to understand how brilliant students majoring in physics organise their life and study schedules, the participants must be those who are brilliant; those scoring 4.0 in all courses. ====> -As a result, they are homogeneous. --------In this case, the researcher would be less meticulous if students scoring 3.5 and above are also considered.
  - - - Conducting interviews
        
        must have willing and ready interviewees --- usually from pool of participants
        
        build rapport with prospective interviewees ==> -Explain to them what you are doing and the purpose of the research.
        
        -Convince them that it is going to be private and confidential and their name and place of work will not be revealed to anyone and be used for the research only. -- give assurance that have right to withdraw any time without repercussions
        
        -It would be beneficial if a letter of consent is signed for the acknowledgement of both parties.
        
        -If you need approval to access the site, make sure you get it from the appropriate authority. -The approval letter is a passport that assures them that the research is genuine.
        
        -When conducting interviews, you need to have the questions cover the issues or scope that you want to explore. ===> keeping in mind purpose and research questions
        
        -Develop protocols for the interview to guide you in pursuing the data that you hope to gather. -With the help of the protocols, interviews can be carried out smoothly and strategically in order to get as much relevant data as possible.
        
        -Arrangement with the interviewees must be made and agreed on by both parties.
        
        -Since interviewees may be working, you should not take up their working hours or their rest hours without their approval and agreement. -Let them set the best time and place, and try to do your best to accommodate whatever recommendations they make. The schedule must also be flexible and not troublesome to interviewees, if a need for rescheduling arises.
        
        maintain professional conduct - -Ask questions and give responses to relevant issues in an open and fair manner. -Do not be judgmental and do more listening than talking. -Do not express your opinions over the issue and make them believe that you are concerned and appreciative of their opinions and views. -When certain issues or interesting aspects emerge, probe intelligently. -Always be courteous throughout the interview, from the start to the end. -The success of the interview greatly depends on your knowledge, interviewing skill and your human relation skills in handling interviewees.
      - technique of data collection that must come after observation.
        
        . Interviewing is a skill that is learned over time.
      - to clarify what cannot be comprehended or interpreted during observation and ascertain correctness of data - interview the participants about the unclear events and incidences during observation
      - -In order to conduct an effective interview, it is best that you start applying the safest and the most controlled form before applying more advanced strategies.
      - 3 different approaches to interview
        
        semi structured
        
        confident and more experienced
        
        unstructured/ open interview
        
        well-versed, experienced in interviewing
        
        structured
        
        best to use if novice
      - various interview strategies
        
        one to one
        
        focus groups
        
        telephone, e-mail, skype, and other means that communication technology can provide.
        
        -choice of interview type determined by the purpose of the study and the research questions.
      - Importance of interviews
        
        a. To understand actions and behaviours during observations from the participants’ perspective.
        
        b. To complement observation data.
        
        c. To get personal perspectives of the participants.
        
        d. To get justifications from participants.
        
        e. To get meaning of actions or rituals from participants’ perspective.
      - advantages
        
        accurate screening/ Capture verbal and non-verbal ques./ Keep focus/ Capture emotions and behaviors
        
        disadvantages
        
        Cost/ Quality of data by interviewer./ Manual data entry.- time/ Limit sample size
    - - What to observe?
        
        observation is complex due to the social context == involves people of various backgrounds, age, preference, religion and culture. -This is bound to create a spectrum of diversity.
        
        -Everything in the context must be observed because everything exists, prevails and you do not know what is important, significant or dominant in the context. ====> -Generally, in order to ensure the richness of the data and to make sure you do not miss anything observe everything meticulously.
        
        Aspects to be observed and recorded are:
        
        non-verbal communication
        
        political atmosphere
        
        social climate
        
        use of space
        
        interaction
        
        language and discourse
        
        environment
        
        atmosphere
        
        situation
        
        climate
        
        observation as a data collection technique requires adequate preparation with relevant knowledge and skills. as it affects the flow of research ===> and affect the authenticity of the data collected and that can jeopardise the authenticity and trustworthiness of the data.
      - 2 ways of conducting observations in QL research
        
        without participating in the event or phenomenon.
        
        -Before making the decision to participate or otherwise in the observation
        
        consider the purpose and the research questions.
        
        dependent on adequate knowledge and skill in observation too ---> to engage most appropriate observation techniques ===> to get the most relevant data for the research
        
        while participating in the event or phenomenon.
        
        How to observe?
        
        observation can only be carried out with the consent of those involved in the phenomena or in a context. -So, the consent must be negotiated and obtained much earlier.
        
        -Then, enter context slowly, cautiously and scan the context as a whole. ==> -
        
        Build rapport with participants first before doing observation. (Good human relation knowledge and social skills are needed to achieve your objective.) - develop rapport to a point that both you and the participants are at a good level of communication, relationship, respect and trust. -
        
        If rapport not built, participants may not be doing things in their practice or life as relaxed and natural as it should be. ==> -which will affect the authenticity of the data and finally the validity and reliability of the whole research findings.
        
        During observation, use the 5W1H questions continuously about what you see in the observation process.
        
        -This will help you to come to the essence of the observation; getting relevant and important data.
        
        -This activity also provides thoughts that you can relate to your knowledge and experience. -Also, this activity can determine incidences or actions that are not clear and want to clarify later with the participants.
        
        be mindful - either as a participant or as an observer
        
        -During observation, you must be very clear that you are a researcher. -As such, you must always be aware of how far you should participate or position yourself in the context if you are a non-participative observer. -Be cautious with what you do and say in the research context. -You should be as “normal” and natural as much as possible and not become the center of focus, as this can affect the quality of the data collected.
        
        observation -- specifics
        
        -Observation is should be carried out with focus on specific incidences and on multiple incidences and events concurrently.==> -To be able to do this efficiently, you need a lot of practise.
        
        -You may start with either one, but for the first observation, normally you need to do a general observation on every event and incidence to get the feel of the context and a rough idea of what is going on.
        
        -From the second observation onwards, you may start by focusing on one event or incidence followed by multiple ones continuously until the data reaches the saturation level.
        
        -Recording data systematically will help you carry out the process smoothly. -This also helps to ease the analysis process.
        
        -Record the observation notes or field notes systematically. -Every relevant incidence seen must be recorded. -Field notes are to be written in a specific, clear and systematic manner. -The notebook to record field notes must be systematically designed with columns for description, reflection, memo, drawings etc. so that every incidence, event, and activities relevant to the research can be captured vividly. -Detailed and systematic field notes help to enhance the analysis process of the research.
        
        -Since data is in abundance and varied, the need to record data in the best and most functional possible way is of utmost importance.
        
        -Otherwise, you may lose important data and you may interpret the data in the wrong direction and weaken the validity, reliability and dependability of the whole research.
        
        -The field notes should be recorded in a matrix system with columns and rows separating various data elements of the context, and other elements needed by the research in progress.
        
        -When the session is completed, withdraw from the context smoothly. -This allows the setting to proceed with its activities as usual. -When your presence does not, in any way, disturb the climate of the context, it will ensure the authenticity of the following observation processes.
      - advantage and disadvantage
        
        adva - access when interviews or questionnaires impossible/ access to ppl in real life situations/ suitable for explaining meaning and context/ strong on validity and in-depth understanding/
        
        disadv - subjective/ time consuming/ depends on role of researcher/ overt -may affect situation therefore validity of findings / covert - ethical principles/ dilemmas of real life situations contravened/ potential for role conflict
    - - Conducting document analysis
        
        -Once planning completed, collect all the documents needed.
        
        collection of documents
        
        -Collecting documents involves interaction and engagement with other people. ----- be aware of the needs and requirements of the process.
        
        -Several steps need to be taken to facilitate the process.
        
        Gain excess professionally
        
        Build up rapport
        
        Convince them by demonstrating high quality courtesy, ethics and morals
        
        Follow all procedures set by the organisation/agency/individuals
        
        Be prepared with what you need and justification
        
        Be flexible and negotiate smoothly
      - Analysing documents
        
        -All documents collected should be sorted out and grouped together.
        
        -Once grouped together, further analysed according to the purpose and the research questions.
        
        -Documents are scrutinised for similarities and differences.
        
        -Similar issues, events or incidents from the various groups of documents are grouped together.
        
        Develop various categories.
        
        -Based on the categories developed, look for the connection between categories and the role of each category in the whole process.
        
        -Consequently, develop themes from the documents.
        
        Lastly match and connect these themes with the themes from other data sources to produce the final themes of the research.
      - -All related relevant documents can be analysed to provide data for a research.
        
        many types of documents that can be used as a source for data.
        
        -Among others are documented written records, audiovisuals, manuals, letters, directives, assignments, exercise books, students’ worksheets, journals, dairies and artifacts.
        
        -In order to carry out an effective document analysis, you need to plan based on the purpose of the research and the research questions.
        
        relevant questions to consider
        
        What categories of documents are needed?
        
        What types of documents?
        
        Where can I get the documents?
        
        Do I need to get permission to view the documents?
        
        Is the document restricted? Controlled? Confidential? Secret?
        
        What are the procedures to get the documents?
        
        What is the nature of the document?
      - adv and disadv
        
        disadv/ too subjective/ time consuming/ depends on role of researcher/ overt - may affect situation and validity of findings/ covert - ethical principles convened/ high potential for role conflict
        
        adv - access to inaccessible subjects/ elimination of researcher effect/ large sample size possible/ can contain spontaneous data/ access to confessional style documents/ relative low cost/ good qulaity documents
- - - - a. Differences: Quantitative: structured, variables predetermined, direct and simple language, details and vividness not emphasised, for generalisation
      - Qualitative: slightly loose, variables emerge from data, detail and vividness emphasised, not for generalisation
      - b. Similarities: in terms of objective ... to answer questions, scientific, systematic, valid and dependable
    - - Thick description of the phenomena;
        
        Vivid description of the phenomena;
        
        Data in the form of anecdotes from transcriptions of field notes and interviews, and excerpts from documents as data;
        
        Less conventional in terms of arrangement;
        
        Narrative in nature;
        
        Strong command of writing.
    - - structure = QN report (unless you have a purely qualitative supervisor or your institution fully accepts pure qualitative research. )
        
        chapters are in the sequence of:
        
        Introduction,
        
        Literature review,
        
        Methodology
        
        Findings
        
        Discussions
        
        Conclusion
        
        (or Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion and Suggestions), like any conventional quantitative research.
        
        -Fulfill all the structures accordingly, but make sure the questions are developed in an open manner encompassing the phenomena in a holistic way. -This is crucial because the questions are one of the main factors that guide and drive the research.
        
        -At least, remember to address the what, why and how questions about the phenomenon, and if possible, the so what question too.
        
        -Generally, the writing of Chapter 1, Chapter 2, Chapter 3 and Chapter 5 are the same as writing a quantitative research report.
        
        -But writing Chapter 4 will be clearly different from data presentation in quantitative research. In order to have a clearer picture, let us go back to the research to explore the quality of a university lecturers’ instructional practice.
        
        -Let’s say that once the themes developed from the data is lecturers have various perspectives about quality instruction.
        
        -You should give a catchy concept for the theme, for example Spectrum of Quality Teaching Perspectives (this is also the finding of the research).
        
        -This will also become the title of the sub topic.
        
        -This finding or theme needs to be supported by data.
        
        -Look at the examples below to have a better understanding on how it should be presented.
        
        Narrative nature of report: Example Spectrum of Quality Instruction
        
        Perspectives
        
        -Participants have a spectrum of quality instruction perspectives.
        
        -It is interesting to see that they are so convinced about the perspective that they hold.
        
        -They have their own reasons and justifications for their ideas.
        
        -Participant A perceives quality instruction as “the ability to deliver the course content according to the curriculum within the stipulated time frame”.
        
        -It seems his quality teaching does not involve the needs of the students at all.
        
        -It is all about getting the job done in the best possible way and time.
        
        -On the contrary, Participant D believes that quality instruction occurs when “we are able to make students learn willingly”.
        
        -This view emphasises the importance of students who are the learners in the classroom.
        
        -However, Participant B has a completely different view point. -The participant believes that quality instruction takes place when “students are quiet, listening and writing down notes as directed by the instructor because learning is about discipline ... no discipline no learning”.
        
        -On the other hand, Participant C has the most unexpected perspective about quality instruction:
        
        -There is no significance in quality instruction.
        
        -Quality will only exist if the number of students scoring good grades is high. It is our responsibility to drill them and give them as many exercises as possible so that they remember the facts.
        
        -Then, we must evaluate them based on the facts that we have taught and drilled into them.
        
        -Based on the participants’ spectrums of perspectives, it is interesting to note that they have their own reasons to justify their perspectives.
        
        -According to Participant A, a quality lecturer must deliver what has been assigned to them accordingly.
        
        -Since lectures are limited by specific time frame, being able to match content and time is a must. Being able to do so is crucial because: ... course outline has been designed according to the duration of the semester.
        
        Everything in the outline is important and students must understand it all.
        
        We cannot spend more than the allocated time on a particular topic and other topics. This is unfair to the students. This is unethical. So we must follow the content and time strictly.
        
        Looking at the examples given above, you should be able to write your qualitative report. Last but not least, the language style should be narrative in nature so that the whole report is presented like an interesting story and not like a straightforward, dry and in a matter of fact presentation.
  - - - Thick description of the phenomena
        
        Vivid description of the phenomena
        
        Data in the form of anecdotes from transcriptions of field notes and interviews, and excerpts from documents
        
        Less conventional in terms of arrangement
        
        Narrative in nature
        
        Demands a strong command of writing
- - - - QL research design
      - -allows loosely designed framework
      - research design does not play the vital role. - rather to providing the approach and focus of the study. - not the factor that determines the direction of the research.
        
        research design employed is also less significant because the research is generally driven and directed by the purpose, the questions and how the data is collected.
      - Direction of research determined by - purpose, focus and the data collection techniques
      - Importance of a ‘perfect’ design to ensure validity and reliability.
      - tend to equate designs and types of qualitative research.
        -The designs also become the types of qualitative research interchangeably.
  - - - Determining a case/ criteria for case study method answer “what”, “how” or “why” questions about a phenomenon.
        
        case needs to be chosen appropriately.
        
        or it is an in depth inquiry about a situation or a form of documents or a specific phenomenon (Merriam 1988).
        
        is an empirical enquiry
        
        a. based on specific interest (not based on the inquiry method employed)
        
        b. focus is a contemporary phenomenon
        
        c. within real life context
        
        d. a comprehensive strategy ( but not a data collection technique)
        
        e. about a limited system
        
        f. a specific point in time
        
        g. phenomena difficult to control
      - Applying case study
        
        steps / process
        
        a. determine purpose, focus, research questions and data collection strategies ==> as part of the design of the research
        
        b. determine/ evaluate the epistemology of the design of the research
        
        c. measure familiarity with the preferred research orientation ( not just bc others have used it or seems simple)
        
        d. level of knowledge, skill and experience (only experienced researchers)
        
        analyse and interpreted data for patterns thats would lead to emergent themes
        
        -Categories and themes are then summarised.
        
        -Finally, a final report is written in the most suitable format.
        
        Gather data of the context/background; the nature of the case, historical background, physical, social, economic and political context etc. ========>
      - Definition of case
        
        a case can be in various forms.
        
        -It can be a phenomenon that is taking place in a specific place, within its specific limitation or boundary.
        
        -At the same time, specific individuals or aspects within the boundary can be chosen as the focus of the study to explain the phenomenon within the boundary that is chosen as the case of the study.
        
        -In this context, the boundary is the focus of the study to explain the phenomenon that is chosen as the case.
        
        a situation, event or phenomenon that is very specific in itself.
        ===> distinguished from the bigger and general context of its occurrence or existence. similar to micro and macro levels of society
        
        2 similar groups may not be the same due to their socio historical backgrounds.
        
        -The context or community, for example , is specific and special in itself.
        
        -This is the boundary of the context and when the context is researched, it becomes the boundary of the case.
        
        -In other words, the boundary of the case is the environment where the case exists.
        
        -The case can be of the processes, events or systems that make a social system function.
      - types of case study depending on purpose
        
        if purpose = of in-depth understanding of an interesting phenomena, it is categorised as an intrinsic case study.
        
        if purpose = to gain insight about a phenomena or issue, or for the purpose of improving theory, the research is called an instrumental case study.
        
        If purpose = to broadly understand a phenomenon or issue by extending the study over a few cases; it is termed as a collective case study.
    - - AR models
        
        McBride and Schostak (1979). -7 steps
        
        identifying the problem and determining focus;
        
        collecting data;
        
        analysing data and developing hypotheses;
        
        planning an action plan;
        
        implementing the action plan;
        
        collecting data and identifying change; and finally,
        
        analysing and evaluating.
        
        In order to attain the best practise, the process needs to be carried out several times until you are satisfied and comfortable with the result.
        
        Kemmis and McTaggert (1988); 5 steps
        
        determining focus,
        
        planning,
        
        implementation,
        
        observation and data collection, and
        
        reflection.
        
        basis
        
        research of a practice, model or technique, ===> collect data, analyse, interpret ==> refelct, modify and improve application ==>repeat second cycle
        
        -After various cycles of application and continuous modification and improvement (that is appropriate and justified), you will come to the best way of application or practise.
      - Conducting AR when is it suitable
        
        factors that influence the suitability of the AR method
        
        the purpose of the research must be determined.
        
        suitable if the purpose of the research is to deeply understand a situation and its environment that hinder the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process.
        
        , the time allocated for the study is manageable and it will not take up too long
        
        -Naturally, researching a small and focused specific scope would not take much time and the researcher would not be overburdened by the AR that is being carried out. ==> -Thus, AR can be interesting and stimulating.
        
        , AR provides an opportunity for cooperation among colleagues in trying to understand the reality of a problem.
        
        -It can be in the form of assistance for a colleague or cooperating with them to solve mutual challenges.
        
        NOTE
        
        IMPORTANT - determine issue/ problem of research ==> - not all problems can be dealt using the AR method.
        
        -Failure in determining this will lead to a lack of in accuracy and meaningfulness of the findings - findings which are unacceptable and questionable, do not contribute to the improvement of practise.
        
        the issue or problem must fulfill several criteria:
        
        Feeling of dissatisfaction within oneself about his/her own practise.
        
        Issue is manageable.
        
        Within a reasonable duration to complete.
        
        Data must be authentic, valid and reliable.
      - Purpose of AR
        
        AIMS to achieve improvement in understanding and awareness about a problem around classroom practice. ===> -In doing so it enables the researcher to achieve several other purposes.
        
        -1. it is an effort to introduce innovation and initiative to upgrade the quality of teaching and learning.
        
        -Through the AR processes, personal strengths and weaknesses, and suitability of teaching practises can be identified. -Consequently, one can take the initiative to change or improve inappropriate practises in a specific context.
        
        -3. AR can be carried out to solve a general problem that is faced by several others. ==> -To be more economic, practical and effective, AR can be carried out involving only a few or several teachers.
        
        -This collaborative self- enquiry actually does not focus on a specific researcher, instead
        it is carried out by and for the researchers (teachers).
        
        enables a teacher to be involved in reflective enquiry on personal practises that can lead to change and improvement.
      - 5 Stages in AR
        
        determining issue/focus,
        
        determine one specific issue in practise that is to be researched. -- which is important and meaningful to the researcher in order to improve his practise.
        
        Need to ask and answer several questions:
        
        Does it involve several aspects; which specific aspect?
        
        Why is it important?
        
        How is it carried out?
        
        Who are the people involved?
        
        What do you hope to get from the research?
        
        What is the issue
        
        -Information to the questions above can provide a clearer picture to you about the issue. -Then, the issue will be very specific and focused, and manageable to be carried out within the constraints surrounding you.
        
        planning for action,
        
        plan the strategies needed to carry out the research.
        
        identifying and understanding activities that can provide relevant data for the research.
        
        a. Clearly write the aim of the research;
        
        b. Determine activities from which data will be collected;
        
        c. Select strategies for data collection and analysis;
        
        d. Clearly explain and justify (b) and (c);
        
        e. Create criteria to measure improvement and success of action.
        
        identify activities and strategies for data collecting
        
        proper and reliable implementation procedures and strategies for data collection must be prepared.
        
        -The procedure should be followed systematically and cautiously to ensure the authenticity of the data.
        
        execution/implementation,
        
        data collection and analysis
        
        collection
        
        data collected based on the teaching and learning process or any work process that prevails in a context.
        
        -Data should be collected systematically and strictly following procedures that have been developed.
        
        -Otherwise, data collected might be less authentic and contextual. ===> -Consequently, this affects the quality of the whole research.
        
        the various activities of the T + L process must be observed meticulously and systematically
        
        due to the nature, data is QL, and context is specific with small number of people
        
        Typical data type
        
        Anecdotal records
        
        Field notes
        
        Document analysis
        
        Reflective journal
        
        Observation
        
        Questionnaire
        
        Portfolio
        
        data analysis
        
        two kinds of data analysis;
        
        2 more items...
        
        -Data must be analysed immediately ==> helps data management and facilitate process of final analysis -- follow steps
        
        3 more items...
        
        data analysis process
        
        -Each data collected will be grouped according to focus or research questions.
        
        -Consequently, there will be several groups of data that are grouped according to focus and concepts that emerge from the research questions.
        
        -Then, each group of data will be analysed to form categories.
        
        -Each group of data will then be put side by side for similarity and interrelatedness.
        
        -Finally, the findings are concluded in the form of themes and concepts.
        
        -The analysis process mentioned above involves several stages/steps that must be carried out systematically and cautiously to ensure validity and reliability.
        
        Step 1: Read the data, making connection with the events and experience related to the data, in the setting during activities.
        
        Step 2: Classifying data according to groups based on specific categories that have been developed. Complex facts and information can easily be understood.
        
        Step 3: Presenting findings in a simple way using matrix, graphs, charts and tables.
        
        Step 4: Interpreting data and developing a conclusion. In the process, connections or relationships between themes and practise, and theories will be elaborated to explain the phenomena.
        
        developing conclusion.
        
        Step 5: Reflection
        
        the process of recalling all that took place during the data collection process, is to ensure all strengths and weaknesses are identified.
        
        -Through this process, strengths are strengthened, while weaknesses are rectified and modified to ensure improvement in performance.
        
        -This process is done based on the results of the data.
        
        -However, if the process was not successful, or the purposes of the research was to develop the best practise, the process must be done over several cycles.
        
        -Every cycle will be an improved version of the previous cycle, based on the data from the previous cycle.
        
        -Improvement over several cycles of implementation leads to the perfection of the practise or the application of a technique or model.
        
        steps in Developing conclusion
        
        The specific relationships and patterns which emerge in the data analysis and reflection will show how the change made is impacting the desired changes the researcher is seeking.
        
        The results show the concepts under study, and the relationships among concepts, how the strategies address the problem and the strengths and limitations discovered.
        
        How the findings could change the understanding of content knowledge in the discipline under study.
        
        The implications drawn from the results of enquiry for future research and directions.
      - Principles of AR
        
        purpose / intention / characteristics
        
        is for self-improvement, it must be carried out with care and passion to ensure trustworthiness of the outcomes.
        
        Besides, this will also help attain transferability of the results of the research.
        
        improving and ensuring quality in educational practices so that teaching and learning are always meaningful.
        
        findings would provide knowledge and understanding that will enable a teacher to take appropriate action to improve the situation.
        
        so needs to be driven by principles that are specifically directed towards achieving an aspiration.
        
        procedure is cyclical and reflective in nature, it enables a teacher to come to the most suitable intervention to remedy the problem through several cycles of implementation required in action research.
        
        -The reflective processes, both on-action and in-action that take place enable a teacher to continuously evaluate their practices in pursuit of the best practices.
        -which warrants continuous corrective actions to improve quality.
        
        researcher is the instrument of research
        
        -The researcher is the researcher and also the participant that collects data for the research. In other words, the researcher is totally involved in the research.
        
        -This enables the researcher to exchange ideas and share findings with the participants of the research until the research is complete.
        
        This collaborative action and discussion among researchers and participants ensures the smoothness of the research process, accuracy, continuity of thoughts and engagement between all parties.
        
        focused on a specific context, i.e the place where the problem actually exist and is taking place.
        
        AR cover only certain aspects related to the context. ==-The limited and focussed nature of the research lead to reporting that is quite similar to a case study, to explain what actually happens in the process.
        
        -More importantly, after the research, the practitioner must be aware of the change in practices that need to be done and begin to implement them right away.
      - benefits of AR
        
        List five benefits of conducting action research.
        
        A3.
        
        a. does not need a long time to complete
        
        b. a means of improving practice
        
        c. minimal cost
        
        d. opportunity to collaborate with peers
        
        e. opportunity to collaborate with students
      - Definition
        
        form of self-reflective inquiry in a social situation with the intention of improving and justifying the social practices; i.e understanding of the practices, the situation and the institution; in order to improve practice
        
        also an approach to improve and upgrade educational practices with teachers themselves implementing the action research, so that teachers would be more aware and critical about their practices and ready to change personal educational practises
        
        the research is about reality, contextual in nature, dynamic in process, collaborative in application, reflective on and in actions, following a systematic procedure, conducted by researchers who are inquisitive, participatory in nature with context, and it is an innovative effort.
    - - a technique used to collect and analyse the content of a text i.e the research is just about the text and the content.
        
        content refers to the language used in a text, comprising of words, phrases, clauses sentences, discourse and meaning, and pictures, symbols, ideas, themes and messages in the text. -Nothing outside the text is included in the scope of the text.
        
        -For example, historical, economic, political, social, cultural, disaster factors that took place during the publication or before the publication, will not be an in anyway related to the research.
        
        -Only the text and the content of text will be the focus of the study.
        
        -In order to carry out a meaningful content analysis research, the purpose and the nature of the research must be very clear.
        
        purposes that warrant content analysis.
        
        explore problems involving serial texts;
        
        study topics in the past, for example, historical documents, documents of writers who are deceased; and understand messages in a particular text that is not easily evaluated, such as emotion, thought and bias;
        
        analyse educational texts such as curriculum, textbooks, related documents, teaching and learning materials.
        
        -Texts comprise of any written documents, visual or spoken, used as the media for communication. ===> -Among relevant examples are books, newspapers, websites, blogs, essays, interviews, discussion reports, articles, magazines, speeches, theatre or drama, advertisements, and almost anything that uses language as the medium of communication.
        
        Implementation of content analysis
        
        carried out step-by-step to ensure quality and the scientific nature of the inquiry. ----so that the process will be manageable, valid and dependable.
        
        Step 1: Read the text to understand the content.
        
        Step 2: Identify, collect and code relevant data into various categories; phonem, morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and discourse.
        
        Step 3: Present data in matrix, chart, graph or table to enable better understanding.
        
        Step 4: Develop the conclusion by looking for connection, interrelatedness, relationship, pattern, compare-contrast, and categorising. The conclusion will be validated by triangulation, checking for contradiction, checking representativeness, checking for researcher’s bias/effect and evaluating supportive evidences.
        
        -In content analysis, you do not have to collect data from the field. -Instead, you have to extract data from a text or several texts that you have chosen. In content analysis, the research is limited to the content of the text only. -As such, it is most suitable for research on language and about the language use of an author, an era or a genre.
        
        content analysis only focuses on the linguistic and language use of a text or texts,
      - differences between a text analysis and a content analysis are:
        
        a. Content analysis is content specific while text analysis is broader and beyond the text.
        
        b. Content analysis focuses on language usage while text analysis also focuses on the political, economic and social factors during a specific era.
        
        c. Content analysis focuses on the product while text analysis also focuses on the author.
    - - PURPOSE == to understand and/or to explore how a group of people carry out their daily life specifically the practices and culture of a community within a specific context.
        
        Within the context of a community, there is a political, economic, social, legal and religious system that governs the life of its members. ===> -With these in mind, there are many settings that ethnography can be applied to as long as it is about a group of people who live, frequent or work in a setting consistently.
        
        -
        
        time consideration - -To be able to understand how the cultural system in a community works, you need to be in the context as long as possible. ==> ethnography normally takes much longer time and is more rigorous in nature.
        
        typical settings for ethnographic research
        
        in classrooms, restaurants, bars, markets, shopping malls, gymnasiums, boxing clubs and theatre groups.
        
        steps
        
        identify meaningful relevant context
        
        -building rapport ==> collect initial data, analyse them to confirm what you have anticipated is actually present in the setting.
        
        after confirmation ==> confirmed through data analysis, plan to collect data for the research.
        
        -choose participants for the research through a technique suitable for the research.
        
        -Follow your participants anywhere they go, if possible, and record everything that they do.
        
        -Make sure you record the data properly and systematically so that the data will be meaningful to the research.
        
        -While observing a participant, there are various things that the participant does and events that he/she takes part, in order to understand the reasons and meaning of what you observe, you need to ask or interview the participant concerned.
        
        -If necessary, also collect documents to strengthen the data.
        
        -This maybe in the form of scripts, speeches, procedures, recipes, letters, books and photographs.
        
        -And finally analyse the data.
        
        Application -
        
        -Since you will be in the context for sometime, you can observe many things and events that the people are involved in. ===> pay attention to practises; rituals; phatic communion; political, economic and social systems; and, the system of law and order that prevails.
        
        for practices and events that you do not comprehend.--- need to ask for the philosophy, beliefs, justification, procedure and sanction that exist in the setting
        
        -To fully and fairly describe the context, you need to collect as much data as possible.
        
        good thing to do is to have a guide when using the ethnography design
        
        be aware of purpose of the research. Then, remember the questions that you intend to answer.
        
        -Identify an interesting relevant and meaningful issue and enter the setting carefully. and start collecting data.
    - - -Text analysis is a research about a text or several texts.
        
        -The purpose of text analysis is different from content analysis.
        
        content analysis only focuses on the linguistic and language use of a text or texts,
        
        -text analysis focus = Language use and linguistics still form the basis of text analysis. BUT ALSO
        
        actual focus will be an the structures of a text or texts, environment, background, the author and the era of a text or texts, including political, economic and social events that might have taken place.
        
        -In other words, the research is positioning a text or texts in wholesome relation to the context. -Generally, a text analysis can be applied depending on the purpose of the research.
        
        -Text analysis is used if the purpose of the research is one or a combination:
        
        explore situational context involving a text or texts;
        
        a study of how political, economic and social events influence the language and content of a text or texts; and/or
        
        analyse distinguished texts in a country or of an era.
        
        Application
        
        -The procedure of the research is more or less the same as content analysis.
        
        -But, the source of data will not be just the text or texts.
        
        -Simultaneously, you will have to look for relevant literature on the politics, economic, social, education, culture and other related background in accordance with the focus of the research.
        
        -For example, you will have to interview authors, publishers, book evaluators and academicians in the field.
        
        a text analysis is more demanding than a content analysis.
        
        -Finally, the decision to use a text analysis greatly depends on the knowledge in the discipline, such as language, literature and communication, and the purpose of the study.
- - - - a. Get willing interviewees.
        
        b. If you need approval to access the site, get it from the relevant authority.
        
        c. Arrangement for time and venue must be made and agreed on by both parties.
        
        d. Build up a good rapport with the interviewees.
        
        e. Tell them that they have the right to withdraw at any time they please.
        
        f. Get the questions/protocols that cover the issues or scope that you want to explore ready.
        
        g. Make sure your purpose and research questions are always in your mind.
        
        h. Ask questions and give responses to relevant issues in an open and fair manner, and not judgmental.
        
        i. Do not express your opinions over issues, and make them believe that you are concerned and appreciative of their opinions and views.
        
        j. Probe intelligently and be courteous throughout the interview.
        
        k. Get ready with relevant knowledge, skills about interviewing and human skills in attending to interviewees.
  - - - conducting observation
        
        The observation is expected to have the following processes:
        
        a. Get the consent of those involved in the phenomena or in a context.
        
        b. Elaborate on the steps that you will follow to carry out interviews.
        
        c. Explain the importance of interviews in qualitative research.
        
        d. Enter slowly, cautiously and scan the context as a whole.
        
        e. Build up good rapport with the participants.
        
        f. During observation, always ask yourself the 5W 1H questions.
        
        g. Be cautious with what you do and say in the research context.
        
        h. Focus on specific incidences and on multiple incidences and events.
        
        i. Record data systematically.
        
        j. When the session is completed, withdraw from the context cautiously.