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R1 (1.1 What is research? (process of reserach should follow the broad…

- - - - purpose
        
        research can address many issues and problems,
        
        -address knowledge gaps
        
        to discover new knowledge in order to add to the existing body of knowledge.
      - using theoretical approach
        
        to
        
        gather answers and results.
        
        The data collected and results gathered and accumulated, will provide answers to the questions posed earlier in the research process and through these, a deeper understanding of the issues and problems may be accomplished.
        
        the researcher must first do an extensive reading of all the theories and models that exist in the literature related to the variable or concept of interest.
        
        As the reading continues, the researchers will slowly be able to identify the areas where there is no conclusive information or knowledge, or an area not thoroughly explored.
        
        These areas form what we call knowledge gaps, and they can hamper advancement in an area of concern or obstruct efforts towards finding a practical solution
    - - When evaluating the findings of published research you must be able to understand, and distinguish valid and legitimate research from one that is unsubstantiated and ill-founded.
        ===> educational research has made major contributions in areas like principles of learning, behaviour modification, curriculum and instruction, educational technology and assessment.
    - - to assist you to better understand the research being discussed when attending professional meetings AND to make informed judgement on the acclaimed and persuasive studies/ commercials conducted by advertisers on radio, television and the Internet..
        -To judge if researches conducted valid and are the findings reliable
  - - - whether the research is an activity that is built on prior or existing knowledge,
        
        is empirical in nature,
        
        replicable,
        
        based on logical rationale which is related to theory,
        
        doable,
        
        flexible, incremental and
        
        open to scrutiny.
        
        Built on prior or existing knowledge means
        
        , when a researcher wants to conduct a research, the researcher needs to find out if similar research has previously been carried out by other researchers in order not to duplicate their works.
        
        previous researches may suggest a strategy or methodology on how to conduct the new research; who the sample should be; the method of data collection; or the method of data analysis.
        
        Thus, what has been discovered by one researcher may become the basis for a future researcher. All the accumulated information will prove useful in the research planning process.
        
        empirical in nature
        
        i.e The process of doing research is a systematic process of collecting, analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon which we are concerned about or interested in, in order to solve problems of daily living.
        
        can be replicated
        
        the methods and procedures of doing the research should be replicable by other researchers wanting to do a similar research.
        
        It is the trait of a scientific finding that it can be replicated
        
        . For example, cooperative learning has been used to improve students’ performance in mathematics.
        
        A researcher, after studying how the previous researcher has done the intervention programme, may want to consider using a similar intervention programme to improve students’ performance in learning science. So, the findings of previous research can become the basis for future research requiring similar strategies.
        
        based on logical rationale and is related to theory.
        
        should be based/ related to underlying theories eg in psychology or education
        
        The activity of doing research provides answers to questions that can fill the gaps and the missing pieces in the education scene.
        
        doable, feasible and incremental.
        
        doable
        
        research topic or a research question CANNOT be one that cannot be conducted, or which is impossible to conduct, within the limited time that you have, or within the limited budget, and with the available expertise.
        
        topic that you decide on, or the question you want answered, should contribute to society at large.
        
        incremental
        
        research should be a building block in overall research area
        
        digestable chewable chunks and you are able to manage it.
        
        many researchers work on doable chunks, each researcher contributing a little hump to the body of knowledge, and incrementally the researched body of knowledge gets larger every time a research is conducted.
        
        open to scrutiny.
        
        responsibility to report research for scrutiny - sharing important for scholarly works
        
        finishes a research, write about it, disseminate the information about the research and the findings of the research to inform the scientific community.
        
        may provide information for other researchers to replicate, and also refute.
  - - - basic research = pure research
        
        is conducted solely for the purpose of generating fundamental knowledge.
        not meant to solve a practical everyday problem. ===> provides the concepts, principles
        and theories as solutions to educational problems,
        
        focuses on developing a model or theory, and on refining a developed theory.
        
        The conceptual process of developing a theory requires that the studies be conducted, and repeated over time.
        
        does not often provide immediate usable information for changing a phenomenon.
        ==> may not have immediate application at the time of completion, but may eventually be applied in some worthwhile application in the future.
        
        findings obtained through basic research may be used to develop products, such as, a training programme, a manual, a curriculum or teaching aids. The testing of these products will then be conducted in applied research.
      - applied research ( most research is of this type) ===> applied research provides data to solve educational problems and at the same time support or help to revise the developed theories in education.
        
        applied research example - a teacher may want to find an answer to the practical classroom problem of improving the students’ performance in a certain subject. The teacher may pose a question, “Will cooperative learning help to improve my students’ performance?” ===> In this case, the teacher is not interested in developing a new theory, or testing a new theory, but in seeking useful information about the impact of using the theory that supports this new strategy on the students’ learning.
        
        conducted for the purpose of solving or finding solutions to some practical problems, and in the process, applying the developed theory to solve the practical problem.
        
        not conducted to build new theories.
        
        research that focuses on what works for education, and what works best in the field. == for practical applications
    - - non-experimental research
      - experimental research.
      - different research questions == dif research method ===> dpdt on whether methodology is QL or Qn
      - for QN
        
        research describing current situations will involve:
        
        a descriptive survey;
        
        studies investigating the relationships between two or more variables in a correlational research design;
        
        studies to investigate the cause-effect relationships will involve an experimental research design; and
        
        research investigating the plausible causes of an observed event is known as a causal comparative research or ex post facto.
    - - QL
        
        focuses on understanding social phenomenon based on information provided by participants involved in the study.
        
        Eg: data are collected from the participants in a natural environment, and the purpose of this type of research is to generate theory, rather than to test possible theories.
        
        -originates from a phenomenology perspective that views the individual and the environment as interconnected entities which are dependent on each other.
        
        -Thus, to understand the human behaviour, the researcher needs to focus on the meaning the phenomenon has to the people around it.
        
        -The results obtained from the phenomenologic investigations will be in the form of a rich and comprehensive narrative report, of how individuals feel, think and experience the phenomenon.
        
        -In the investigation, the researcher starts off without knowing which way the information will unfold, or which variables are involved, thus, the researcher cannot start the research with a formulated hypothesis.
        
        researcher will seek to investigate further into the research setting to obtain in-depth understanding about why certain events, for instance, occur the way they do, and how participants interviewed actually perceive them.
        
        researcher then must undertake persistent in-depth and in-context research in order to unearth less clear personal feelings, values and understandings.
        
        examples
        
        ethnographic research that involves the study of participants’ perspectives of their culture while in their natural setting.
        
        case study research, a methodology-based research which uses a qualitative approach.
        
        In this instance, the research is conducted on a small unit of study, such as a teacher, a group, a class or a school.
        
        However, in-depth research is conducted on all possible relevant factors for each group.
      - QN
        
        type of research that involves numerical data, collected using instruments that are objective, and the data are statistically analysed in order to explain the problematic situations.
        
        -originates from the positivists view that principles and laws govern the physical world, so too the social world. The positivists emphasise objective measurement and techniques which can be used to collect data in order to explain and predict human behaviour. This positivist view is often considered as the traditional scientific approach, originally used by scientists and as later used and applied to social science and the education fields.
        
        -This approach typically involves systematically defining the problems and testing the formulated hypotheses and theories, and inferring and generalising the findings of the research to the population at large. The systematic process of doing the research allows for replication and scrutiny of the research conducted by interested parties.
      - Quantitative research has been said to be more rigorous and more objective than qualitative research.
        which method the researchers choose depends on the suitability of the approach to solve the immediate problem, not forgetting the preference of the researcher.
        OR MIXED METHODS
        
        SEE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QL AND QN METHODS U1
  - - - experience (personal and others)
        
        most immediate way to know something is from 5 senses - hat allow us to absorb and comprehend the things around us.
        
        The information gathered by these senses is then interpreted, processed and becomes part of our experience.
        
        disadvantage of sensory perceptions
        
        incomplete --- impossible to get a complete picture of something based on our senses alone.
        
        We also normally lose information when we shift focus to other things or are distracted. The longer we retain a sensory memory, the more likely it will change due to memory loss or influence of new knowledge.
        
        from others experience
        
        but open to interpretation -- can be misleading
        
        What our brain makes out of the data received by the senses can sometimes be strongly influenced by circumstances such as previous encounters, emotions, situations and so on. That is why we can get different stories from different people witnessing the same event.
      - expert opinion,
        
        examples
        
        A student turns to a teacher who is an authority in the classroom, who is trained to be a professional having years of experiences.
        
        Or, the student may seek the correct spelling of a word from a dictionary which can also be regarded as an authority.
        
        A novice teacher may seek the wisdom of a master teacher who has had more experiences and is an authority in the field.
        
        usually a faster and easier way of obtaining knowledge.
        
        However, knowledge gained through experts may also be less relevant in later times due to further advancement of knowledge.
        
        For example, information gathered from an expert today regarding the use of technology in the classroom may be relevant for now, however, it may no longer be relevant and may not be used in the future.
      - logic and
        
        = our intellectual faculty to reason things out. ====> basic components of the scientific method.
        
        Logic involves different kinds of thinking processes, and among the most utilised are deductive and inductive reasoning.
        
        deductive
        
        premises are true, then the conclusions are true.
        
        -started from the time of the ancient Greeks and was introduced by Aristotle and his followers.
        
        -It is a thinking process that starts with a general statement or knowledge (for instance, a theory) and the logical argument leads to a more specific knowledge.
        
        An argument constitutes several statements that are related to each other.
        
        The argument starts with premises which provide supporting evidence, and finally ends with a conclusion.
        
        A major kind of deductive reasoning is known as syllogism.
        
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        In this deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion is true.
        Thus, deductive reasoning allows you to organise the true premise statements that lead you into making a valid conclusion.
        in deductive reasoning, you can only arrive at a true conclusion, if the premises are true.
        If any of the premises are false (perhaps some research textbooks do not have a table of random numbers), your conclusion may then be wrong.
        
        advantage and disadvantage of DR
        
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        inductive
        
        the reverse process of deductive reasoning
        
        -This process of thought involves making general statements or conclusions based on specific observations on events or experiences.
        
        Thus, you need not accept general statements as the truth until you are able to observe specific events that prove that it is true.
        
        In this case, you need to see the importance of observations, and based on the specific evidences you have observed, you can then make inferences or conclusions on whatever events you have observed.
        
        inductive reasoning is used to develop generalisations based on observations of specific events.
        
        advantage and disadvantage
        
        advantage https://connectusfund.org/3-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-inductive-reasoning
        
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        disadvantage
        
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      - the scientific method.
        
        obtain knowledge objectively, systematically, and is not influenced by beliefs, opinions and one’s emotions.
        
        which investigators move inductively from their observations to hypotheses,
        
        then deductively from the hypotheses to the logical implications of the hypotheses.
        
        If the deduced implications are compatible with the organised body of accepted knowledge, the researchers then further test them by gathering empirical data.
        
        systematic process with several steps
        
        a. Identification and definition of the problem
        
        investigate by systematically questioning what is to be investigated.
        Then it requires the investigator to clearly define with precision the nature and the scope of the problem, that has been identified to be investigated.
        
        b. formulating a hypothesis;
        
        investigator then formulates the tentative hypotheses as solutions to the problem identified. A hypothesis is an educated guess, a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture, or an explanation for the occurrence of phenomenon or events.
        It provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation.
        
        c. designing the strategy to collect the data and collecting the data;
        
        when the investigator designs the method of data collection and then goes about collecting the data.
        
        d. analysing the data; and
        
        investigator goes about organising the collected data and analysing the data, to find solutions to the problem.
        During this process, statistical analysis is conducted to test the hypotheses.
        
        e. making a decision to confirm or disconfirm the tested hypothesis and making conclusion.
        
        Once the data are analysed, and the hypotheses tested, the investigator needs to make a decision as to confirm or disconfirm the hypotheses.
        A conclusion can then be made after the decision-making.
        
        described as a method of acquiring knowledge in which the researcher moves inductively from specific observations of the problem, which led him to formulate a tentative hypothesis in order to explain the facts gathered through the observation.
        
        then proceeds to test the formulated hypothesis by deducing from it and collecting more information and data, and then checking whether the hypothesis can be further supported.
        
        -The utilisation of both the inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning is what characterises the scientific approach, scientific method or the scientific inquiry.
  - - - as a ‘process or steps used to collect and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue’.
      - steps in research framework
        
        posing a question
        
        collecting data to answer the question
        
        presenting an answer to the questions initially posed
  - - - identify research problem --> review of literature --> specify research purpose --> conduct research and data collection --> analyse and interpret data --> report research --> identify research problem
    - - research begins with a problem: an unanswered question in the mind of the researcher. It is related to an issue or problem in education that needs to be resolved. Once the problem is identified, you need to develop justification for resolving this problem. At the same time, it will tell you and also inform your readers and your supervisor what you intend to research on and why it is important that this problem be studied. All the other steps in conducting the research depend on how clear your intentions are.
        
        crucial that you consider whether it is feasible to tackle this problem in lieu of available time, available resources, your expertise, and your possible financial constraints. Most important is the fact that you must initially check if this problem is real, not something you imagine it to be, by reviewing available literature.
    - - Reviewing available literature related to the problem you have identified is important. You need to know who has studied the research problem you intend to study, and how prior literature review related to the research you plan to study has been conducted. Reviewing the literature means that you have to locate books, journal articles, reports, indexed publications, unpublished materials, and summarising them in a review.
    - - -Research defines the goal in terms of a clear statement of the problem. At this juncture, there is a need to focus on the goal specified so that it is manageable. -A focused restatement of the problem is stated as the purpose of your research. -This is an important statement because with this statement, you inform the reader about your entire study, signalling the research design to be used, the participants to be involved, the locality of the study, the procedure for data collection, the type of data analysis you will be using and the type of results you are anticipating. -The purpose of the research is further refined into objectives for the study, which in turn are then narrowed into specific research questions or hypotheses.
    - - -In order to provide answers to the posed research questions and the formulated hypotheses, the next step in the process of research is to first decide which design is the best for conducting the research, and then, decide on how the data collection is going to be carried out. - However, before doing the actual data collection, the researcher needs to identify and select the individuals who are to provide the data through the necessary accurate data gathering instruments developed.
        
        At this stage, of paramount importance is the decision on the design chosen since the design must be the most suitable for the required research questions. -Once the choice of individuals to be investigated has been identified, the anticipated data to be gathered will be in the form of numbers (such as test scores, or scores for certain dimensions of a necessary construct) or perhaps in the form of words (such as responses and opinions) described by the respondents. -Whatever the description and the justification of research design chosen, the choice on individuals to be studied, the data collection instrument used, and the procedure for the data collection process performed, the researcher needs to systematically and clearly describe everything in the research report. -The details on how you go about doing all these in the research process will be elaborated in greater detail in the later part of the course.
    - - Once you are able to gather the data, you can then start to make sense of the data provided by individuals involved in the research. - You may need to look at individual responses separately, or to organise the information in a form that makes sense, and also to summarise the information provided. - Thus, the process of analysing and interpreting the data accumulated involves summarising data in the form of tables, charts, graphs, or in the form of described words, and drawing conclusions that provide answers to the initial research questions posed.
    - - develop a written report and disseminate it to a selected scientific community. The process of reporting the discovered findings of the research requires that you identify the target audiences with whom you want to share the information. The audiences of research may be other academic researchers, advisors or supervisors, or stakeholders of relevant agencies.
        
        The structure of the report may vary slightly depending on the target audience. However, in any report, and also considering who the target audience is, the research report needs to be respectful and avoid inclusion of personal values and biasness. The report should also avoid using language that discriminates on the basis of sexual orientations, gender, colour, race or ethnic groups.
        
        Once the report is disseminated, it is open to evaluation and scrutiny by the public or specific scientific community. These are the individuals who will be the judge of the quality, the usefulness and the benefits of your reported research.
- - - - personality could be measured by using questionnaire items that relate to introvert or extrovert behaviour of an individual. -Using several self-response items related to introvert and extrovert behaviour, an individual’s personality can be determined; hence the result can be termed as a variable.
      - teacher efficacy” can be measured by using teachers’ self-response to questionnaire items, or by observing a teacher in action in the classroom and judging his/her efficacy in his/her teaching.
      - judgment can be based on five criteria: unsatisfactory, marginal, moderate, very good and excellent. -These two means of measuring “teacher’s efficacy” is a process of operationally measuring the construct but prior to that, one needs to first define the construct operationally. -At the same time, prior readings and understanding of the concept is necessary.
    - - Identify what he/she wants to measure;
        
        Read and source information related to the measure in order to understand about the construct and means to measure it;
        
        Clarify the means to measure the construct — the construct should be observable and measurable;
        
        Define the construct in terms of processes and operations that can be observed or measured; -- i.e define construct operationally and measure operationally
        
        The well-defined construct can now be called a variable.
  - - - QN vs QL variables
        
        -QN variables exist in some degree or continuum, from less to more, whereby numbers can be assigned to different individuals or unit of study.
        
        example, teacher's heights are QN measure so QN variable
        
        example, teacher's qualifications--- i.e BSc or BA = QL variables
      - Categorical versus continuous variables
        
        a continuous variable -A variable that takes up any numerical value or quantity
        
        a discrete variable - a variable that takes up categorical value
        
        Eg: continuous variable - Age as measured in years / height as measured in centimetres
        Eg: categorical variables - Gender can be assigned to either male or female category and race as an individual and Malay, Chinese, Indian and others in terms of race.
      - Independent versus dependent variables
        
        classification of a variable is based on the role or function of the variable.
        
        dependent variable is the variable affected ---“depends on” the influence or effect of the independent variable.
        = presumed results
        
        an independent variable - A variable that presents an effect or influence on another variable. It is presumed to affect the other variable which is termed the dependent variable. = the presumed cause
        
        example - a study looking at the effects of cooperative learning for acquisition of English language proficiency, is likely to refer to the former as the independent variable and the latter as dependent variable. \
        
        example - investigation of relationship between success in mathematics and self-confidence among secondary school students, mathematical ability is the independent variable whilst students’ self-confidence is the dependent variable.
        
        example - mathematical ability influences self -confidence and in the earlier example, learning approach does affect English language proficiency.
      - Other commonly referred terms regarding variables
        
        Manipulated variable is one that the researcher creates and seeks to investigate its effects on one or more dependent variables.
        ---usually found in experimental studies.
        = experimental variables or treatment variables.
        
        Outcome variable is measured quantitatively in a research study (which can be the outcome of some kind of manipulation or intervention).
        
        It is often called the dependent variable which was earlier referred to as the variable that received the effects or influence from another variable (independent variable).
        
        example -- in examining differences in teaching methods, the possible outcome variables are performance, competency, attitude, motivation, etc.
        
        In studying effectiveness of a counselling approach, the outcome variables which can be investigated are student achievement, motivation, anxiety, depression, maniac syndrome and so on.
- - - - For example, why do young learners have anxiety towards learning mathematics, what are the factors associated with anxiety during learning of mathematics, what instructional strategy can be used to overcome this phenomenon, and what psychological intervention can be done to reduce anxiety during learning mathematics among learners.
  - - - What is the problem?
        
        a problem statement should start by explaining clearly the problem that becomes the focus of the study.
        As the problem statement comes after background of the study, all surrounding issues and scenarios should have been covered.
        Numeric information for establishing “impact” can be included,
      - Why is it a problem?
        
        Elaborate on the debilitative impact of this problem if no proper intervention or action is taken. Relate the need to have an empirical finding to work on the solution.
        Bring in the related statistics demonstrating the problem and indicate why the problem is important by citing numerous references that justify the need to study the problem.
      - Why is it STILL a problem?
        
        Summarise previous effort or research towards solving the problem. Pick up on key findings and explain why those findings are still not enough to solve the problem. The purpose is to establish that there is a strong need for further study before the problem can be solved.
      - How is this study going to solve the problem?
        
        Introduce your study and explain how it is supposed to provide information or knowledge that will contribute towards solving the problem. Make sure that the problem statement is consistent with the research approach to be undertaken. For example, discuss factors that are related to the problem if the approach is correlational or associational. On the other hand, if the research problem is related to effect of some kind of intervention in the educational process, then discuss similar or related outcome effects based on experimental studies.
  - - - Personal educational experiences —
        
        also a common way to identify research problems.
      - Replication —
        
        a researcher sets and plans to do the research again.
        -replicate a study in different settings in order to further understand the phenomenon.
        --- may involve the same intervention (problem-based learning) but to different kinds of students, community, classroom climate, and instruments used.
        will find that many existing studies need replicating with different samples, for example, in different culture, subject matter, level of student, etc.
      - theories
        
        main and meaningful source of research problems or topics.
        theories can be a source of research problems.
      - Library search —
        
        many cited sources of research problems --- Reviews of previous research are a fertile source - may find suggestions for a new research topic or an extension of a topic.
        
        normally consists of two stages.
        
        The first stage involves a general overview of the relevant area using secondary sources, i.e., general textbooks which include the relevant topics and literature reviews.
        
        The second stage, after isolating the problem, will focus on a more specific and structured review using primary sources such as related journal articles.
  - - - Problem clearly stated — a basic characteristic that it is researchable.
      - A good problem has theoretical or practical significance, and the findings point in some way to the improvement of the educational process.
      - A good research problem is one that can be adequately investigated given the current level of research skill that a researcher has, available resources and time.
      - A good research problem is one that is ethical, that is, a study that does not in any way harm the participants physically and emotionally.
      - A good research problem should indicate the background of the problem, including a justification for the study in terms of its significance.
      - A well-written research problem narrows the broad problem to specific variables of the study, the specific relationship between those variables and also the type of participants involved.
- - - - During the conduct of research, researchers must show respect for subjects or objects of research. Amongst things to ensure during the process of data collections are: do not cause any disturbances or disruptions as far as possible to the premises.
        
        Once permission is granted by EPRD, you then need to obtain permission from the state level, and the district Department of Education. Then only principals of schools will allow you to conduct research at the premises. It has been said that with the permission letter from EPRD, researchers should be given permission by principals to conduct the research. However, there are principals who insist on seeing all letters given by all gatekeepers.
        
        You may also need to get permission from parents to allow you to use their children as participants in your research.
        
        before entering the premises of the school where you intend to collect your data, it is the responsibility of the researcher to get prior permission. The Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD), Ministry of Education is the first gatekeeper you need to seek permission from, before you can gain entrance into a school setting. You need to submit your proposal when seeking permission.
    - - show respect for the audience wanting to read your report by honestly reporting the full research.
        
        also responsibility to share the findings of the research with a larger community by having it published in widely read scholarly journals. AS this allows other researchers to build up their research based on yours. ====> In this way, the body of knowledge is allowed to expand further.
        
        maintain anonymity of participants involved in your research, by making sure that you publish all reports using group data rather than individual data. ===> If need to highlight information given by an individual (such as those done for qualitative research), then a pseudonym should be used.
        
        if your report cites materials taken from previously reported research, credit must be given to the authors by not only stating their name and the year published, but also including it in the reference section of your report ==> should not plagiarise any part of other people’s works.
        
        Data collected must be reported fully without any attempt to manipulate or adjust any part of the collected data.
    - - should be a primary concern throughout the research process from the initial process of reviewing literature, to identifying a problem, to defining the problem, to formulation of research questions and hypotheses, to the procedure of data collection, to analysing data, to writing the final report, and to publishing the report.
        
        If you are a member of a professional organisation, you are being guided by the ethical standards laid down by the organisation. Thus, in order for you to practise ethics when conducting research, you need to obtain the formalised sets of guidelines published by your professional organisation.
    - - overall code of conduct when doing research. They offer helpful guidelines which protect the rights of subjects/participants involved in research.
        
        AERA/ APA/ AAA --- professional bodies and their guidelines on research ethics
      - Guidelines --- all individuals who participate in your research have rights.
        
        participant's right to information about research
        
        responsibility of the researcher to inform their subjects before they are involved in the research as to the purpose and aims of the research, how the provided information are going to be used and the consequence of being involved in the research.
        
        -The subjects need to be aware of how this research may affect their lives.
        
        -They voluntarily need to give their consent, and not being coerced into giving one.
        
        -At any time, they should be allowed to withdraw from the research.
        
        -If they are involved in providing information, their anonymity must be maintained and protected by the researcher. -Confidentiality must be upheld.
        
        -At the same time, the researcher must realise that the participants also have the right to gain something from being involved in the project. NOT offered excessive financial inducement. RATHER -Researchers should also think of giving back to the participants, for instance, by giving a career talk to the class involved in the research.
        
        In many private and public organisations such as universities and colleges, the institutions have set up review boards (Institutional Review Board — IRB) consisting of people from various disciplines who will render judgement as to the suitability of participants to be involved in the research, or whether involvement of subjects in the research is free from risk. In fact, in some institutions, they even have a special board to specifically look into the use of animals in experimental research.
  - - - The person conducting the research is the one who is the first and most important judge of its ethical acceptability.
      - Every effort should be made to minimise risk to the participants.
      - The researcher is responsible for enduring ethical practices, including the behaviour of assistants, students, employees, collaborators and anyone else involved in the process.
      - A fair and reasonable agreement must be reached between the researcher and the subjects prior to the beginning of the research.
      - Researchers must respect a subject’s choice to withdraw and must not coerce the subject to return to the study.
      - Whenever possible, participants should be shielded from physical and psychological harm.
      - Once the research is complete, results of the work should be made available, and the participant should be given a chance to clarify any discrepancies of which he/she might be aware.
      - If the research activity results in harm of any kind, the researcher has the responsibility for correcting it.
      - All the information about the participants of a study, and any related results, are confidential.
- - - - Research questions are statements that build from the objectives or purpose of the study. Research questions are thus specific questions to be answered which also narrow the focus of the study as stated in the problem statement.
      - You can begin with a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon, followed by narrow questions based on a few variables.
      - According to Houtz (1995), one can ask one or two central questions followed by several sub-questions and these can be applied to both quantitative and qualitative research.
      - Quantitative research questions inquire about the relationships among variables that the researcher seeks to know.
      - They are used frequently in educational studies, specifically in survey study.
      - The following are a few examples of research questions based on each of the research objectives above.
      - Do students of different gender score differently in the Eysenck Personality test?
        
        Does metacognitive training strategy improve learners’ thinking ability?
        
        Does student-centred learning leads to more satisfaction among students than teacher-centred learning?
        
        How do parents feel about the school counselling programme?
    - - Include independent and dependent variables as well as any mediating or control variables used in the study. This can be classified into three usage:
      - Include the participants under study.
      - Identify the site for the study. The research site may be limited to one district, or to one metropolitan city.
      - Include terms that delimits the scope of participation or research sites in the study. For example, the study may be limited to female only or parents only.
      - NOTE :warning:!!!!! :red_flag: note that, a researcher should write only research questions OR hypotheses, not both, EXCEPT WHEN hypotheses are built upon the research questions as in the case of qualitative study.
      - Choose the form based on tradition, recommendations from an adviser or faculty committee or whether past research.
  - - - The formulation of hypotheses follows logically and should be based on review of literature on the problem . However, problems are not the only source of hypotheses.
        
        Hypotheses can also be derived from theory, since theory guides research and provides hunches, educated guess or predictions which need to be tested.
        
        A hypothesis which cannot be tested cannot be used in any kind of scientific investigation. Hypothesis must be stated so that it is capable of being accepted or rejected.
        
        In a scientific research, two kinds of hypothesis are constructed: the research hypothesis and the null hypothesis.
        
        research hypothesis ---is a hypothesis derived from theory or literature related to
        the problem that one is investigating.
        
        hypothesis must be clear in terms of its measurable, testable, relationships between variables, and consistent with most known facts or specifically, grounded in past knowledge.
        
        Ensuring all these aspects of measurement means to operationalise the terms measured.
        
        research hypotheses usually predict whether there is a difference of some kind between two or more groups in the population, or relationship of some form between two or more variables in the population.
        
        BUT it cannot be tested using the statistical tools available. statistical analysis, we do not actually test the research hypothesis that we are predicting or advancing, but we can test the logical contra or opposite of the research hypothesis which is called the null hypothesis.
        
        Null hypothesis —
        -is a hypothesis that is the opposite of the prediction of the research hypothesis.
        i.e research hypothesis stated in another form which is the negative or null form
        
        can be 1. hypothesis of relationship OR 2. hypothesis of differences
        
        The null hypothesis relates to a statistical method of interpreting conclusions about population characteristics based on the information observed in the samples.
        The null hypothesis asserts that relationship or differences observed in the sample are merely a chance error inherent in the sampling process. :forbidden: :no_entry:
        CF research hypothesis if the researcher obtains information which results in the null hypothesis to be rejected (that means the phenomenon is not merely a chance error), then he/she can accept the research hypothesis.Hence he/she can conclude that the observed relationship or difference is too great to attribute to sampling error. :red_cross: :forbidden:
    - - should be based on sound reasoning. This means the hypothesis is derived from previous research or theory, and is an added contribution to educational theory or practice. Therefore its major characteristic is that it is consistent with theory or previous research.
        
        should be stated clearly, in correct terminology, and operationally. This means that the statement must be concise technically and the terms are operationally defined. Terms such as personality and school attainment should not be used as they are too general. As replacement, terms such as “personality as measured by the Eysenck Personality Inventory” and “school attainment as measured by cumulative grade point average upon high school graduation” are concise and operationally defined.
        
        should be testable within a reasonable time frame. A testable hypothesis means measurement can be done on the variables investigated and subsequently the measured variable can be analysed. For example, intelligence quotient and Eysenck Personality trait can be measured, and then tested for differences or relationship based on the collected data. On the other hand, students’ good behaviour or aloofness cannot be measured easily. Thus, a researcher investigating relationship between the two variables needs to operationalise the two concepts before any testing can be done. In addition, since behaviour varies by age, the researcher needs to classify the age group and study that particular group in order to test the hypothesis.
  - - - Research objective conveys the overall as well as specific intent of a proposed study.
      - Research objective is a statement that indicates “why you want to do the study which also means what you intend to accomplish” (Locke et al. 2007, 9).
      - The objectives (also referred to as purposes) of the study are built upon the problems that need to be overcome and is stated in sentence or paragraph.
      - Research objectives or purposed statements convey the intent of a study.
        
        It may be formulated as several statements or as one statement of the intent of a study depending on the depth and breadth of the study.
        
        Logically, one statement may serve one or a few objectives.
        
        On the other hand, many statements may indicate intensity or depth of the study.
    - - Cresswell
        
        Use words which indicate purpose or objective — this indicates central focus.
        
        For each study, focus on single phenomenon — for example, “perception towards the school counselling programme”, “Eysenck Personality Trait test”, “achievement motivation among university students”, “professional development course”, etc.
        
        Use action verbs as they illustrate an emerging action to be undertaken — use words such as describe, examine, develop, determine, etc.
        
        Use neutral words or phrases such as examining personality trait rather than good personality behaviour.
        
        Identify the independent and dependent variables as well as any mediating or control variables used in the study.
        
        Include words that indicate the strategy in data collection, analysis and the process of research.
        
        Include the participants under study.
        
        Identify the site for the study. The research site may be limited to one district, or to one metropolitan city.
        
        Include some language that delimits the scope of participation or research sites in the study. For example, the study may be limited to female only or parents only.