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Chapter 1: How do Media make Meaning? (Analytical tools: semiology (key…
Chapter 1: How do Media make Meaning?
thinking about media as texts
three part relationship in regards to media output
commodity
status refers to the economic transaction intrinsic to media products (even if we are not directly paying for it: advertisements)
text
/meaning: the way in which media entertain, stimulate, inform etc. us
physical form of media output:
artefact
making sense of media texts (in a superficial way) is habitual, a constant in our everyday life
making meaning of media texts involves looking at 3 different elements
media production
background of consumers
medium-specific language and conventions
Analytical tools: rhetoric
rhetoric: the construction and manipulation of language by the creator of a text in order to get an affective response
rhetorical analysis approaches media texts and their meanings as constructed out of the use of available techniques, styles and conventions in any medium in order to elicit a response from the audience
rhetorical analysis suggests that meaning is not mainly about information, the tangible content of of the media, but is tied to the way we learn about that information: its presentation and the particularities of the medium
language
is the material out of which a single instance of communication is created
captioning
the explanation shown alongside a picture which shapes the way it will be interpreted
verbal rhetoric
both written and spoken
refers to the vocabulary used in media communication
the choice of words makes it stand out from other texts within that medium (tabloid vs. high end journalism, rap vs. country music)
e.g. for newspapers: alliteration, euphemism, metaphor, cliche
presentational rhetoric
the way a message is delivered
accents when speaking, font used when writing, body language,
mise en scene: term used to label all the contents on the stage and their arrangement (setting, costume, make up, acting of performers etc. ) -> used in theater and film, but also TV, photography and video games
photographic rhetoric
retouching
cropping
composition: choice of angles, lighting, close up or far away etc.
juxtaposition: two elements being put side by side during shooting or when presenting the picture, giving a new meaning to the two previously distinct elements
montage: merger of two pictures into a seamless new whole
editorial rhetoric
deals with moving images (film, TV, computer games)
mise en scene
3 elements used to produce an affective response
framing (shared with photography)
editing
significance of the image presented (in sign value)-> semiology; shared across all media forms
motivated cut: creating a causal link between separate elements (checking watch-> look of anxiety-> running)
establishing shot: serves to pinpoint the situation in terms of location for example
intended audience: need to analyze rhetoric (as much as possible) in the way they were meant to be affecting people, irrespective of individual perspectives; need to be aware that other influences may make rhetoric ineffective (e.g. budget restrictions of a movie)
Analytical tools: semiology
semiology/ semiotics: the study of signs; the study of meaning and the different systems that make meaning possible
meaning is created by the interaction between the text and the reader
key thinkers in semiology
Ferdinand de Saussure
Charles Sanders Peirce
Roland Barthes
Valentin Volosinov
Umberto Eco
core assumptions
media texts are seen as constructions: not natural occurrences, but manufactured, involving a set of choices that led to its creation
meanings are the result of social conventions, rather than any inherent property-> meaning is socially determined
if texts are constructed from language, and the meaning of language is created by social conventions, then the meanings of the text is as much the result of these conventions as it is the result of the intentions of the text's creators
hidden meanings/ subtexts: meanings we are not primarily conscious about and are subsumed to the obvious or 'main' message of a text
semiology in textual analysis
sign: basic unit of communication systems
signifier: physical properties or aspects of a sign that lead them to be perceived in some way
signified: the conceptual aspect of the sign- the association or idea conjured up by our perception of the signifier
apparent imprecision of the signified: we don't all conjure up the same though when hearing a word
the two elements are always indivisible
langue: a whole system of signification and its elements- the distinctions and oppositions which allow meaning to emerge, determined by the rules and principles of combination shared by the communities who recognize and use this system of signification (e.g. French; langue of food)
parole: any particular expression derived from the langue
paradigm and syntagm: the principles of how language or any signifying system is put together.
Paradigm: refer to what we would call the 'vertical' relationship between any words in a sentence or sign in a system- an element that could be substituted for another sign
signs in language are organised in linear fashion to make more complex structures such as sentences or 'syntagms' which demonstrate the possibilities of paradigmatic selection
compared to verbal signs, visual signs are much harder to analyse:a photograph is not absorbed in a linear fashion, the same way a written text is; It is sometimes hard to accept that images do not have an essential meaning; it is hard to identify a clear, distinct base unit of analysis (as opposed to words)
diachronic (the way it changes over time) vs. synchronic (at a specific time)
to change any element in the set-up of a complex sign or greater text would alter its meaning although some elements are more important than others
the way we analyze complex signs is based on these questions: What are the most significant elements of this text? Which signs are most meaningful and how are they meaningful within the organisational hierarchy of the text?
significance/ commutation test: replacing one sign with another and seeing how this changes the meaning-> determines how relevant a sign is
denotation (first aspect of signification; most obvious, literal or generally agreeable aspect) and connotation (further associations, more abstract, debatable and contextual)
sign-object relations
indexical: defined by cause (sign) and effect (object): finding footprints on an island-> other humans are here
symbolic: merely conventional relationship
iconic relationship: the physical similarities between a sign and its object (e.g. smiley faces)
organisation of signs in a text
when signs are combined, their structural relationship is changed- has effect on connotation
signs may reinforce each other
never absolute-> different people have different values, and at they are everchanging at a society level
multi-accentuality: the concept that a sign has a central nucleus of meaning but that around this there is a range of other, close but distinct, possible meanings that can be identified-> polysemia: many meanings/ readings (difference between the multiplicity of readings possible because a text is ambiguous- deliberately or otherwise- and those possible due to its polysemic nature)
codes
A code has a set of rules which determine how each element may be used and combined with other elements; it contains a limited number of elements that can be used
if the code that is utilised by the reader is a different one than the one used by a text's creators-> a reading that was not intended will take place: 'preferred' and 'aberrant' readings
semiology-> subjective; two ways to support our analyses: demonstrating the inter-subjective nature of our reading (not relying upon what we think or feel alone) and by providing detailed support for our analysis