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Unit 8 (Module 37: Motivational Concepts (Hierarchy of Motives: Maslow'…
Unit 8
Module 37: Motivational Concepts
motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
instinct: a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned
drive-reduction theory: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
homeostasis: the maintenance of a steady internal state
incentive: positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us
Yerkes-Dodson law: moderate arousal would lead to optimal performance
Hierarchy of Motives: Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
Self-Transcendence
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness and Love
Safety
Physiological
Module 38: Hunger Motivation
ANCEL KEYS: semistarvation experiment with men (set-point/set-range and metabolism)
A.L. WASHBURN and WALTER CANNON: Washburn swallowed a balloon with a recording device; balloon transmitted hunger contractions
Body Chemistry and the Brain
glucose: the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; low levels=hunger
arcuale nucleus: has a center that secretes appetite-stimulating hormones, and another center that secretes appetite-suppressing hormones
appetite-enhancing: stimulated = well-fed will eat; destroyed = starving will not eat
appetite-suppressing: stimulated = stop eating; destroyed = continuous eating
ghrelin: a hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
set point: the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set
basal metabolic rate: a measure of how much energy we use to maintain basic body functions when our body is at rest
The Psychology of Hunger
neophobia: dislike of things unfamiliar
social facilitation: eating more with others
unit bias: portion size matters
food variety: more variety = eating more food
Obesity and Weight Control
obese: BMI of 30 or more
set point and metabolism - fat has lower metabolic rate than muscle; body below set point = increased hunger and decreased metabolism
genetic factor - people's weights correspond to biological parents; identical twins have similar weights
food and activity factors - sleep loss = more vulnerable to obesity; social influence = fat friends can lead to fat self; fattening world = eating more and moving less
Module 44: Stress and Illness
physiological illnesses: literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related illness, such as hypertension and some headaches
psychoneuroimmunology: the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
4 Types of Search-and-Destroy Cells
lymphocytes: the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system
B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow release antibodies that fight bacterial infections
T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells; viruses, and foreign substances
macrophage: identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn-out cells
natural killer cells (NK cells): pursue diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer)
Stress and Susceptibility
stress does not cause AIDS and Cancer, but alters the immune system and makes us more vulnerable
coronary heart disease: the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries
Type A: Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
Type B: Friedman and Rosenman's term for easy-going, relaxed people
Module 41: Theories and Physiology of Emotion
emotions: a mix of bodily arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience, including thoughts and feelings
Historical Emotion Theories
James-Lange Theory: the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Cannon-Bard Theory: the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
Two-Factor: the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
Zajonc: emotional reactions apart from interpretation of situation
Richard Lazarus: brain processes vast amount of information without conscious awareness and some emotional process do not require conscious thinking
Embodied Emotion
in a crisis: sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system; mobilize for action and directs adrenaline
after a crisis: parasympathetic division calms body and lowers stress hormones
insula: neural center deep inside the brain; activate when feeling lust, pride, and disgust
polygraph: a machine, commonly used int attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion
Module 42: Expressed Emotion
Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior
women are better at reading emotional cues
women have greater emotional responsiveness
anger is more masculine
women are more empathetic emotionally and expressively
Culture and Emotional Expression
gestures can mean different things for different cultures
facial expressions are about the same
The Effects of Facial Expressions
facial feedback effect: the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
health psychology: a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine
Module 40: Social Motivation: Affiliation Needs
The Benefits of Belonging
stronger in numbers
autonomy (a sense of personal control) and competence = deep sense of well-being and higher self-esteem
feeling loved activates brain regions associated with reward and safety systems (pre-frontal cortex)
foster children avoid deep attachments - can persist into adulthood (insecure anxious attachment or insecure avoidant attachment
ostracism has mental and physical effects; being ignored has increased brain activity in anterior cingulate cortex, also activates in response to physical pain
Connecting and Social Networking
phones, texting, and media have blown up in people's lives
lonely people tend to go online'; neighborliness decrease = better relationships; face-to-face communication = better predictor of satisfaction; reveals peoples real personalities; can lead to narcisissm
Module 43: Stress and Health
stress: the process of appraising and responding to a threatening or challenging event
3 Main Types of Stressors
catastrophes
significant life changes
daily hussles
The Stress Response System
WALTER CANNON: stress response is "fight or flight"
HANS SELYE
general adaptation syndrome (GAS): Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
alarm - sympathetic system activated
resistance - temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high
exhaustion - vulnerable to illness
tend-and-befriend: under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
Module 39: Sexual Motivation
The Physiology of Sex
WILLIAM MASTERS and VIRGINIA JOHNSON: watched people displaying arousal and orgasm
sexual response cycle: the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
excitement phase - genitalia engorge with blood, vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and breast-nipples enlarge
plateau phase - excitement increases as breathing, pulse, ad blood pressure rates increase, penis is fully engorged and some fluid forms at the tip, vaginal secretion continues to increase
orgasm - rates increase, pulse goes from 70 bpm to 115 bpm, female orgasm positions uterus to receive sperm and draws sperm in
resolution phase - male enters refractory period (few minutes to day or more) and incapable of another orgasm, female refractory period enables more orgasms
refractory period: a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
sexual dysfunction: a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or function
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
estrogens: sex hormones (such as estradiol) secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing yo female sex characteristics
testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but increased testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in fetus and development of sex characteristics during puberty
The Psychology of Sex
biological influences - sexual maturity and sex hormones
psychological influences - exposure to stimulus conditions and sex fantasies
social-cultural influences - family and society values, religious and personal values, cultural expectations, media
external stimuli - men respond more specfically to sexual depictions involving their preferred sex; explicit material may make partners less appealing
imagined stimuli - dreams can influence arousal