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Endocrine System (Other hormone producing structures (Liver…
Endocrine System
Other hormone producing structures
Small Intestine
Cholecytokinin
- regulates digestion within small intestine by facilitating digestion of nutrients within small intestine
Changes in the level of Cholecytokinin is associated with gallstones
Secretin
regulates digestion within small intestine by helping to maintain normal pH in small intestine
Low levels of Secretin in the GI tract are associated with Helioconacter pylori infection
Stomach
Gastrin
- Facilitates digestion within stomach
Zollinger-Ellison syndrome
- caused by having too much gastrin in the small intestine resulting in an overproduction of stomach acid
Liver
Erythropoietin
- Increases the production of red blood cells
Insulin like Growth Factor
- Aids Growth Hormone in its function and helps regulate growth.
Angiotensinogen
- converted by enzymes released by the kidney and within the inner of blood vessels to angiotensin II; stimulates thirst center
Adipose
Leptin
- helps regulate in food intake.
Skin
Vitamin D3
- converted by enzymes of liver and kidney into calcitriol ; aids in the functions of PTH and increases calcium absorption from small intestine
Heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide
- functions primarily to decrease blood pressure by stimulating both the kidneys to increase urine output and the blood vessels to dialate
Low and high levels of ANP can cause an imbalance in blood pressure homeostasis.
Kidneys
Erythropoietin
- Increase the production of red blood cells
Polycythemia
- caused by high levels of erythropoietin and leads to very high production of red blood cells in bone marrow
Anemia
- caused by low levels of erythropoietin and results in a low level of healthy red blood cells in the blood stream.
Placenta
Estrogen and Progesterone
- stimulates the development of fetus and also stimulates physical changes during pregnancy including those in the uterus and mammary gland
Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamus
- inferior medial area of the brain
Corticotropin
- a releasing hormone that stimulates Adrenocorticotropic hormone production in pituitary;
CRH
Gonadotropin
- a releasing hormone that stimulates gonadotropin production in pituitary;
GNRH
Thyrotropin
- a releasing hormone that stimulates Thyroid Stimulating Hormone production in pituitary;
TRH
Growth Hormone
- an inhibiting hormone that inhibits GH production in pituitary;
GHIH
Growth Hormone
- a releasing hormone that stimulates GH production in the pituitary;
GHRH
Prolactin
- a releasing hormone that stimulates prolactin production in pituitary;
PRH
Prolactin
- an inhibiting hormone that inhibits prolactin production in pituitary;
PIH
Pituitary
-in the hypophoseal fossa of sphenoid below the hypothalamus.
Anterior pituitary
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
- development of gametes(and follicle in female)
Luteinizing (LH)
- development of gametes (and ovulation in females)
Prolactin (PRL)
- Breast milk production
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
- stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid homone.
Growth hormone (GH)
stimulates cell growth and division
Growth Hormone Deficiency
exists at birth and as a result of inadequate growth hormone production due to problems with the hypothalamus or pituitary causing growth retardation
Pituitary Gigantism
- overproduction of growth hormone these people have enlarged internal organs, extreme height and problems with blood glucose management.
Acromegaly
- overproduction of growth hormone in adults, because the epiphyseal plate has closed in adults they do not grow in height but the bones of the face, hands and feet widen and enlarge
Posterior pituitary
- hormones released are actually produced by the hypothalamus.
Oxytoin
- causes uterine contractions and breast milk release
Antidiuretic Hormone
-fluid balance;
ADH
Pineal Gland
- located deep in the center of the brain
Melatonin
- helps regulate the body's circadian rhythms; and holds a function in sexual maturation.
Thyroid Gland
- sits low on the front of the neck and wraps around the trachea.
T3 triiodiothyronine and T4 tetraiodothyronine
- Increases metabolic rate of all cells; increases heat production.
Hyperthyroidism
- overproduction of Thyroid Hormones and results in increased metabolic rate, weight loss, hyperactivity and heat intolerance
Hypothyroidism
- an underproduction of Thyroid Hormones and leads to a low metabolic rate, weight gain, and lethargy.
Calcitonin
- decreases blood calcium levels; most significant in children
Parathyroid glands
- small posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
Parathyroid Hormone
- increases blood calcium levels by stimulating both release of calcium from bone tissue and decrease loss of calcium in urine; causes formation of calcitriol hormone.
Hyperparathyroidism
- an overproduction of parathyroid hormone, which leads to a high level of calcium in the blood
Hypoparathryoidism
- an underproduction of parathyroid hormone, which leads to low levels of calcium in the blood.
Adrenal Gland
- paired endocrine glands anchored to the superior surface of each kidney.
Adrenal cortex
-distinct yellow portion of adrenal gland
Mineralocorticoids
- Regulates blood sodium and potassium levels by decreasing the Na and increasing theK excreted in urine.
Glucocorticoids
- participate in the stress response; increase nutrients that are available in the blood
Cushing Syndrome
- results from the chronic exposure of the body's tissues to excessive levels of glucocoricoid hormones, symptoms include obesity ( specifically in face and back), hypertension, kidney stones and menstrual irregularities.
Addison Disease
results in the underproduction of Gluccorticoids and sometimes mineralocorticoids, symptoms include weight loss, general fatigue and weakness, hypo-tension and darkening of the skin.
Gonadocorticoids
- Stimulate maturation and functioning of the reproductive system.
Adrenal Medulla
- inner core of each adrenal gland
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
- Prolong effects of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
Endocrine Organs
Pancreas
- elongated nodular organ between the duodenum of the small intestine and spleen.
Insulin
- Decreased blood glucose
Diabetes Mellitus
a metabolic condition marked by inadequate uptake of glucose from the blood
Type 1 Diabetes
- insulin-dependent diabetes, characterized by absent or diminished production and release of insulin by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets. Tends to occur in children and young adults.
Type 2 Diabetes
- insulin-independent diabetes, characterized by decreased insulin release from the beta cells or decreased insulin effectiveness; this often occurs in obese adults and children.
Gestational diabetes
- is seen in pregnant women during the second half of pregnancy.
Glucagon
- Increase blood glucose
Hypoglycemia
- occurs when blood glucose levels drop below 60mg/dL. Insulin overdose, drinking alcohol on an empty stomach, and liver or kidney dysfunction can all cause Hypoglycemia
Gonads
Ovaries
female- located on both sides of the uterus in the lower abdomen
Estrogen and Progesterone
- stimulate maturation and function of female reproductive system
Low levels of estrogen and progesterone can cause women to virilize and cause infertility.
Inhibin
- Inhibits the release of follicle stimulation hormone
Testes
male- located in the scrotum.
Testosterone
- stimulate maturation and function of male reproductive system
Low levels of testosterone in men can cause infertility
Inhibin
- inhibits the release of follicle stimulation hormone.
Thymus
- bilobed organ located in the superior mediastinum. Large in infants an young children.
Thymosin, thymulin, thymopoietin
- stimulates maturation of T-lymphocytes
Types of Hormones
Amino Acid based hormones
-
water soluble
, bind to protein receptors on the outside surface of a cell.
Biogenic amines
- modified amino acids.
Hormones in this group include epinephrine and norepinephrine (water soluble), Thyroid Hormone (lipid soluble), and melatonin (water soluble)
Proteins
- composed of small chains of amino acids all hormones in this category are water soluble.
Hormones in this group include Oxytocin, Prolactin, Cholecystokinin, Secretin, Gastrin, Atrial Natriuretic Peptide, Antidiurectic Hormone, Angiotensin II, Erythropoietin,Growth Hormone, Parathyroid Hormone, Calcitonin, Glucogen, Insulin
signal transduction pathway
- a series of biochemical events across the plasma membrane when a water soluble hormone binds to a plasma membrane receptor.
G protein
activated when hormone binds to a receptor protien
Adenyate Cyclase
- activated G protein binds and activates enzyme Adenylate cyclase. Andenylate cyclase converts ATP to
cAMP
(second messenger). cAMP then activates protein kinase C
Phospholipase C
- activated G protein binds and activates enzyme phospholipase . Phospholipase C splits PIP2 into two second messengers ( DAG and IP3).
DAG
- second messenger, activates protein kinase C
IP3
- increases calcium in the cytosol, calcium is the third messenger by activating protein kinase enzymes and may alter activity of ion channel in the pm
Steroids
-
lipid soluble
molecules synthesized from cholestrol. Go directly into a cell.
Hormones in this group include estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, corticosteroids, mineralocorticoids, calcitriol, and aldosterone
hormone-receptor complex
- formed when the hormone enters the cell it binds to a receptor (in the cytosol or the nucleus)
hormone-response elements (HRE)
- formed when hormone -receptor complex binds with a DNA sequence in regions of the chromatin within the nucleus
HRE results in transcription of mRNA in synthesizing a specific protein which can cause an alteration in the cell structure or shift in the cells' metabolic activites