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Gender Theory (Difference # (Jones (1990) (House talk (The exchange of…

- - - - Men covert prestige
        
        Derives from the b/h that goes against the norms and conventions of 'respectability'
      - Women overt prestige
        
        Respectable, socially desirable b/h
  - - - Men more likely to drop the 'h' sound
        
        "House" --> "'ouse"
      - Men more likely to drop the final 'g' sound of words
        
        "Swimming" --> "Swimmin'"
      - More use of slang than women
      - Men are more likely to speak with grammatical error
        
        "We seen it last week"
      - Men are more likely to use double negatives
  - - - Men use insults as a way of expressing solidarity
  - - - The exchange of information and resources connected with the female role as an occupation
        
        Domestic role, health and beauty
    - - The talk about the b/h of others
        
        Particularly women
    - - The overt expression of women's anger
        
        At their restricted roles or inferior status
        
        Express this frustration in private and to other women only
        
        Women who bitch aren't expecting change
        
        They only want to make their complaints in an environment where their anger will be understood and expected
    - - The most intimate form of gossip
        
        A mutual self-disclosure
        
        Transaction where women use to their own advantage the skills they have learned
        
        As part of their job of nurturing others
- - - - "The idea that men and women.. use language in very different ways and for very different reasons is one of the great myths of our time"
      - 'Gendered language' is a performance rather than driven by biology
  - - - "The problem with this is that you might simply have a very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total"
      - Questions the meaning of interruptions
        
        "Why do interruptions necessarily reflect dominance? Can interruptions not arise from other sources? Do some interruptions not reflect interest and involvement?"
      - Recorded 10hrs of tutorial discussion
        
        557 interruptions (Z+W had just 55)
        
        Men and women interrupted in similar frequency
        
        Men: 34.1
        
        Only slightly more; not statistically significant
        
        Women: 33.8
  - - - Rather the social setting
    - - Features of 'uncertain speech' dependent on power relations
    - - These power relations are applicable in all-female talk
  - - - Claims that Lakoff dealt mainly with generalisations
      - Suggested that tag questions may also function as a device to maintain discussion
        
        Rather than being a weakness, tag questions are multi-functional
- - - - Taped informal conversations between students in cafes, bars and shops
        
        Same sex convo
        
        Interruptions were fairly evenly split between the two subjects
        
        Mixed sex convo
        
        96% of interruptions were from men
  - - - Competitive
      - Interrupt more
      - Ignore the other person's utterances
      - More willing to express disagreement
      - Show reluctance to pursue topics initiated by others
    - - Co-operative
      - Ask more questions
      - Give support feedback
      - Pay more compliments
      - Initiate topics
      - Bring others into the convo
      - Use inclusive terms more
        
        E.g. 'We' (plural pronouns)
      - Develop ideas from prev speaker
  - - - Male perspective
        
        The common perspective of language, literature, media etc
        
        Mulvey
        
        Male Gaze
        
        We view traditional art and literature through male writers or characters
        
        Masculine and heterosexual P.O.V.
        
        Presents women as objects of male pleasure
- - - - Women were socialised into sounding like 'ladies'
        
        Kept them 'in their place'
        
        Being 'lady-like' prevents achieving power in society
    - - Hedge
        
        Phrases like "sort of", "kind of", "it seems like"
        
        E.g. "You're kind of missing the point"
        
        Declarative
        
        Potential FCA
      - (Super) polite terms
        
        "Would you mind..", "I'd appreciate it if..", "..if you don't mind"
        
        E.g."Could you please, possibly, if not too much trouble, help me?"
        
        Interrogative
        
        Negative politeness
        
        Women fear ordering a superior group
      - Tag questions
        
        E.g. "You're going to dinner, aren't you?"
        
        Form of conversational shitwork [Fishman (1983)]
      - Speak in italics
        
        Intonational emphasis equal to underlining words
        
        so, very, quiet
        
        E.g. "He was so sweet"
        
        Introduces feelings into speech rather than information [Tannen (1990)]
      - Empty adjectives
        
        Cannot visualise noun from this description
        
        nice, lovely, adorable
      - Hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation
        
        English prestige grammar and clear enunciation
        
        E.g. "To whom are you sending this letter?"
        
        Preposition placement
        
        Interrogative
      - Direct quotation
        
        Men tend to paraphrase more often
        
        E.g. "He said 'I'll be there."
        
        Personal pronoun
      - Special lexicon
        
        Women use more precise words for things like colours
        
        "It was a kind of mauve and dusty pink"
        
        Adjectives are precise
        
        (In conflict with empty adjectives - depends on context)
      - Question intonation in declarative sentences
        
        Raise the pitch of voice at the end of a statement
        
        Expressing uncertainty
      - "Wh-" imperatives
        
        "Why don't you open the door?"
        
        E.g. "Where did you go on holiday? Portugal"
        
        Hypophora
      - Speak less frequently
        
        Unable to monopolise the conversational floor
      - Overuse qualifiers
        
        "I think that"
        
        Personal pronoun
        
        Differs own opinion to others
        
        To ensure those with dominance (men) cannot feel offence to generalising an opinion they may not agree w/
        
        E.g. "It was so good of you to do that"
        
        Intensifier
        
        Positive politeness
      - Apologise more
        
        "I'm sorry, but"
      - Modal constructions
        
        can, would, should, ought
        
        E.g. "You could try doing it differently"
        
        Pragmatic criticism
        
        Negative politeness
      - Avoid coarse language or expletives
        
        'gosh', 'oh my word', 'crikey'
      - Indirect commands and requests
        
        "My, isn't it cold in here?"
        
        Really a request to close a window
      - More intensifiers
        
        Especially so and very
        
        "I'm so glad you came!"
      - Lack a sense of humour
        
        Women don't tell jokes well and often don't understand the punchline of jokes
  - - - Status vs Support
        
        Men use language to show power and domination in conversations
        
        Women are more likely to use language choices that support and agree with others
      - Independence vs Intimacy
        
        Men will use language to show they do not need to rely on others
        
        Women prefer to use language as a way of connecting with others and maintaining closeness
      - Conflict vs Compromise
        
        Men are more likely to use language to argue a point
        
        Women will use language to avoid such conflict and are far more likely to negotiate with others to try find a solution or compromise
      - Orders vs Proposals
        
        Men are far more likely to be direct in their language and use imperatives to command others
        
        Women will avoid such a commanding tone and be more suggestive in their language choices
      - Advice vs Understanding
        
        Men are more likely to offer solutions to a problem through their language choices
        
        Women will show empathy and understanding to a given situation
      - Information vs Feelings
        
        Men are far more likely to be factual in their language choices
        
        Women will use language choices that are less factual and stem from a more emotional viewpoint
  - - - Challenges Lakoff
        
        Women use tq to gain conversational power
        
        Rather than tentativeness
        
        However, agrees that it does show male dominance
        
        Males are reluctant to do this 'shitwork' bc of their male dominance
      - Focused on tag questions
        
        Agrees with Lakoff that tag questions are far more commonly used by women
        
        4x more than men
      - Listened to 52 hours of pre-recorded convos between young American couples
      - Women are the ones who are trying to keep a conversation going