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Tributary Empires 1 (Post Nomadic empires: From the Mongols to the Mughals…

- - - - Diodorus of Agyrium: "Sicily is the noblest of all islands since it can contribute greatly to building an empire ." Diodorus wrote this as a preface to hs history of the first punic war (264 - 241 BC). It was indeed the first province in the conquest of Africa.
    - - Hieron, the new strong man in Syracuse, rose against the Mamertines and defeated them in 265 BC, securing the title of King in his city rose against the martinis and defeated them in 265BC, securing the title of King in his city but failed to drive them out of Messana. Out of fear the Mamertines appealed first to the Vatahrgians and then to the Romans.
      - noms arrival on the island was motivated by an appeal for help from the Mamertines, mercenaries from campania who had been hired by King Agathocles to fight in Sicily and since 289 BC had installed themselves in Messana, as a base for their surrounding lands
      - Hieron abandoned the alliance with Carthage and came to terms with rome after Rome had pillaged the surroundings of Sicily, thereby maintaining possession of his kingdom. pow Rome could concentrate on Carthage. In 241 BC Rome was able to force Carthagans out oSicily.
    - - first punic war
        
        summary
        
        The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For more than 20 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. The war signalled the beginning of a strategic transformation in the western Mediterranean.[1] Carthage began the war as the great sea-power of the western Mediterranean, while Rome had but a small fleet of fighting ships.[2] Over the course of the war, Rome built up a powerful navy, developed new naval tactics, and strategically used their navy, army, and local political alliances on Sicily in order to achieve a victory that expelled the Carthaginians from Sicily.
        
        background
        
        Rome
        
        Rome had recently emerged as the leading city-state in the Italian Peninsula, a wealthy, powerful, expansionist republic with a successful citizen army.[4] Over the past one hundred years, Rome had come into conflict, and defeated rivals on the Italian peninsula, then incorporated them into the Roman political world. First the Latin League was forcibly dissolved during the Latin War,[5] then the power of the Samnites was broken during the three prolonged Samnite wars,[6] and then the Greek cities of Magna Graecia (southern Italy) submitted to Roman power at the conclusion of the Pyrrhic War.[6] By the beginning of the First Punic War, the Romans had secured the whole of the Italian peninsula, except Gallia Cisalpina in the Po Valley.
        
        Carthage
        
        Carthage was a republic that dominated the political, military and economic affairs of the western Mediterranean Sea, especially on the North African coasts and islands, and above all, due to its navy.[4][7] It originated as a Phoenician colony in Africa, near modern Tunis. Carthage had become a wealthy centre for trade networks extending from Gadir (Cádiz) along the coasts of southern Iberia and North Africa, across the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and the western half of Sicily, to the ports of the eastern Mediterranean, including Tyre, its mother city, on the shores of the Levant.[8] At the height of power, just before the First Punic War, Carthage was hostile to foreign ships (such as Roman and Greek vessels) in the western Mediterranean.
        
        beginning of the war
        
        In Sicily, the Mamertines ravaged the countryside and collided with the expanding regional empire of the independent city of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River.
        
        The Carthaginians acted first, approached Hiero to take no further action and convinced the Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison in Messana. Either unhappy with the prospect of a Carthaginian garrison or convinced that the recent alliance between Rome and Carthage against Pyrrhus reflected cordial relations between the two, the Mamertines, hoping for more reliable protection, petitioned Rome for an alliance. However, the rivalry between Rome and Carthage had grown since the war with Pyrrhus and that alliance was simply no longer feasible.
        
        According to the historian Polybius, considerable debate took place in Rome on the question as to whether to accept the Mamertines' appeal for help and thus likely enter into a war with Carthage. The Romans did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful possessors, and they were still recovering from the insurrection of Campanian troops at the Battle of Rhegium in 271 BC. However, many were also unwilling to see Carthaginian power in Sicily expand even further. Leaving them at Messana would give the Carthaginians a free hand to deal with Syracuse. After the Syracusans had been defeated, the Carthaginian takeover of Sicily would essentially be complete.[16] A deadlocked senate put the matter before the popular assembly, where it was decided to accept the Mamertines' request and Appius Claudius Caudex was appointed commander of a military expedition with orders to cross to Messana.
    - - death of Hiron was the end of the heyday of Syracuse -> Hironimus ended the peace with rome and after a long siege Claudius Marcellus sieged the city. in 211 BC
      - special situations for Rome as this was the first conquest outside the mainland.
      - island for the first time under one ruler. The Rome did not bother that very little latin was spoken but took a huge interest in the islands grain production
      - destruction of Carthage in 146 BC
    - - In Verrem ("Against Verres") is a series of speeches made by Cicero in 70 BC, during the corruption and extortion trial of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily. The speeches, which were concurrent with Cicero's election to the aedileship, thrust Cicero into the public view.
    - - Egypt in 30 BC made sicily or its grain less significant Augustus abolished the fiscal system of tithes and replaced it with a stipendium. This allowed the island to focus more on the economy goods of vine and olives and also renew its commercial relations with northern Africa.
  - - - cicero had good reasons to stress the harmonies relationships between. Cicero draws the picture of Sicily as the ideal province who has always supported Rome. Rome retained the tributary system under Hieron as a sig of respect.
- - - - definitino
        
        Patrimonial states arose, according to Weber, when Lords and Princes extended their sway over areas beyond the patriarchal domain. Within the realm, the ruler/master exercised military and administrative power of an unrestrained character.
        
        they governed on the basis of a personal kind of traditional authority whose model was the patriarchic family. Patrimonial domination originated in the patriarchs authority over his household: it entailed obedience to a person, not an institution
        
        patrimonial-beaurocratic empire, a model of premodern state organization first developed by Max Weber, has inspired much of the recent writing on the structure of the empires in the early modern Middle East.
        
        two basic variants emerged: the first, the patrimonial kingdom was the smaller entity and was closer in organisation and government. The patrimonial.bureaucratic empire, was larger and more diffuse.
      - army
        
        armies of patrimonial-bureaucratic empires were made up of two parts: the private household troops and the soldiers of the major subordinates, the bulk of the army. Men, who were more bound to their commanders than to the emperor. Patrimonial administration followed a similar pattern.
        
        to govern successfully a patrimonial ruler needed a body of loyal, disciplined soldiers. In patrimonial armies the allegiance was to an individuals, rather than a dynasty or an office.
      - administration
        
        in the patrimonial kingdom there was literally no difference between state and household officials
        
        not possible in patrimonial bureaucratic empires where they had officials. These official often performed tasks unrelated to their actual job.
        
        maintain gin control in the empires
        
        in the smallest patrimonial kingdoms > the officials received compensation for their services directly from the rulers household. IN patrimonial bureaucratic empires this was not possible -> they began to give officials land revenue assignments. Since the revenues bypassed the ruler entirely and since the assigned lands were often at considerable distances from the capital, this arrangement meant a loosening of the emperor's control over his officials. As a result, patrimonial.bureaucratic emperors devised a collection of strategies tha replaced, to some extend at least, the traditional sources of control.
        
        strategies to keep control
        
        they travelled frequently and widely, renewing the personal bond. They demanded of all soldier regular attendance a court and often required that a son or relative be left behind as hostage. They let the officials rotate and never let them do the job for more than a couple of years. And they also created offices with overlapping responsibilities.
  - - - Ottomans
        
        1289 - 1923: the marriages were politically motivated, there were two main phases
        
        phase 1: late 13th century until mid-fifteenth century, sultans contracted legal marriages with the nearby christian and Anatolian rulers while at the same time introducing concubines into their harem. They married their sons into ruling families and their daughters to the sons of Muslim rulers.
        
        second phase begins with the death of Mehmet the conqueror (1451-81). Thereafter the Ottoman rulers judged no other dynasty worthy of marital alliance.The sons of concubines were just as allegeable to the throne as the sons of free muslims.
      - safavid empire
        
        1501 - 1722 -> practice of musahara, cementing political alliances through marriage became an important tactic for consolidating imperial power.
      - Mughal empire
        
        1526 - 1739 marriage was for them also an important tactical strategy. Mughal emperors and their sons married the daughters of military rivals. the imperial daughters usually never married. these daughters were often very learned
        
        the principal factor for accounting for the different marital role of imperial daughters was the Indian costume of hypergamy, whereby wife-takers were considered superior to wife-givers.
      - summary
        
        the ottomans claimed a status so exalted that no possible bride r bridegroom could be found for them or their sons and daughters. The sultans and their sons gave up marriage entirely while their daughters were only given to high-ranking slave members
        
        In the Safavid empire, the need to build political alliances seems to have trumped the desire for status, and imperial princesses to military or religious dignitaries.
  - - - brothers and sons held provincial posts during the 16th century, sisters and daughters had also claims to political power.
      - in the early 17th century sisters as well as brothers were blinded because they were potential threats.
    - - under the early Ottomans all male members were considered equally eligible to the throne and many were given provincial posts.
      - this led in the 14th and 15th century to very bloody succession struggles. Mehmet the conqueror changed that and concluded -> the one of my sons to whom god grants the sultanate may lawfully put his brothers to death.
      - second half of the 16th century -> as rulers became more sedentary and administration more routinised a new rule based on seniority emerged -> ruler was succeeded by the oldest living male relative
    - - never came up with a strategy to eliminate competition.
      - Babur (1526 - 30) had a very short time as ruler. His son Human on coming to the throne, distributed provincial offices to each of his four brothers
      - Akbar, Humans son was challenged and so was Jahangir, Akbars successor.
  - - - the Imperial birthday celebration in Mughal India was an invention of the emperor Akbar. In its final forth celebration w as held twice a year.
    - - imperial circumcision ceremony was a central ritual of political legitimacy. -> not mentioned in Islamic law though. In the safavid and Mughal empires these things were kept private. the were also used to divert from defeats -> such as the defeat of vienna by the ottomans.
- - - - The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: ٱلْخِلافَةُ ٱلأُمَوِيَّة‎, trans. Al-Khilāfatu al-ʾUmawiyyah), also spelt Omayyad,[2] was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: ٱلأُمَوِيُّون‎, al-ʾUmawiyyūn, or بَنُو أُمَيَّة, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. An Umayyad clan member had previously come to power as the third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), but official Umayyad rule was established by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in AD 661. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital.
      - The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 (4,300,000 sq mi)[3] and 62 million people (29% of the world's population),[4] making it one of the largest empires in history in both area and proportion of the world's population
      - The Umayyad Caliphate was de facto secular.[5] At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims. The Christian and Jewish population still had autonomy; their judicial matters were dealt with in accordance with their own laws and by their own religious heads or their appointees, although they did pay a poll tax for policing to the central state.[6] Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups (still a majority in times of the Umayyad Caliphate) should be allowed to practice their own religion, provided that they paid the jizya taxation. The welfare state of both the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor started by Umar ibn al Khattab had also continued, financed by the Zakat tax levied only on Muslims.
      - Muawiya's wife Maysum (Yazid's mother) was also a Christian. The relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were stable in this time. The Umayyads were involved in frequent battles with the Christian Byzantines without being concerned with protecting themselves in Syria, which had remained largely Christian like many other parts of the empire.[6] Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.
    - - ruling elite was military
      - the caöiphs did not settle their armies on the land. They installed an army in each province and then the taxes went to the army -> onseuqnece was that there was no money for the capital
      - taxes did not go to the capital os the third distinguishing factor
        
        the romans left the taxing to local elites after that though the taxing was in the hands of the central government.
        
        surveillance over the tax collection was far higher in the caliphate
        
        in the caliphate because they were elites they thought it was okay to keep the taxes.
        
        the goal was therefore how to get the revenue from the local arab armies. the caliph and al_malik installed syrian armies pretty much everywhere and the revenue went to damascus.
        
        Yazid III used as part of his manifesto in 744 that the taxes would stay in the provinces.
        
        end of the Umayyads
        
        in 749 the Umayyads were overthrown by the army of Khurasan, which chose a new caliphate dynasty, the abbasids
        
        The Abbasids centralised the army structure slowly removed the salaries of the decentralised armies of the provinces. -> tax revolt and civil war in the 8th and 9th century. This allowed for the centralisation of the fiscal system and Baghdada became very rich.
        
        The Abbasids relied on sending out armies from Baghdad
        
        The Abbasids turned out to be on the wrong side of the civl war and were replaced by persian levies from Khurasan later by turkish troops, ex slaves.
        
        at its height the Abbasid empire was even more centralised than the roman had been
        
        the Abbasid empire was not very stable -> the provinces had less incentive to send money and goods to Iraq. If a province or most likely a provincial governor and his entourage wanted t to keep its taxation, it would have to break away from the Abbasid state and recruit its own army, thus creating the Iraqi lhasa at the level of the province. This happened in Tunisia in 810 and in the 860s it was repeated by Egypt under Turkish Tulunids as well as Iran under the succession of Persian dynasties. After the 1920s it happened everywhere and the Abbasid caliphate broke up
        
        therefore the romans were much more successful in integrating the provinces. by giving more power to the landowingi elites, integrating them more organically into the structures of the empire. (the Mediterranean also helped because land communication could never have been easy.The Abbasid system worked best at the level of the province one could argue