Syria/Antioch/Constantinople: deep monastic tradition; focus on ascetism and voluntary celibacy

Iranaeus of Lyons (135-200) tolerance of montantists and quarterodecimans; vocal opponent of gnostics; focus on agreement/unity among the churches, rule of faith, liturgy, creeds; raises position of episcopate; teaches resurrection of the flesh; unity of God & God's profound involvement with the material world

Modalists: persons of the trinity not distinct entities; different names/modes/manifestations of the same God

Tertullian (160-225): son of pagan centurion serving in Africa; converted to Christianity around 193 in Carthage; successful legal career in Rome; knowledge of Greek & Latin; accused Monarchists of making the Father suffer; in his systematic Adversus Praxean, he invents the word Trinity, as "economy, signifying the manner in which the divine omnipotence, which is unapproachable in itself, reaches out as Father, Son/Word/Wisdom, and Holy Spirit, toward the creation to both make and renew it" (#1964). Took on Roman legal machinery in his writings to criticize persecutions; maintained the patriarchal bias of the Roman household code; disliked infant baptism; Traducianism: soul inherited from parents; later in life defender of Montanism

Cyprian of Carthage (200-258): pagan aristocrat who had recently converted when he was elevated to presbyter ; he was a rhetorician and lawyer; His ascent may be linked to a large charitable donation to the church for the relief of the poor (he gave away "all his fortune"). Laity pushed for his ascent to bishop; he read Tertullian daily and relied on an ancient bible cross-referencing work to aid his preaching (probably to catch up with his minimal training and Christian knowledge); Cyprian went into hiding during the Decian revolution; Cyprian defended his flight as "tactical withdrawal" (#5015). Cyprian argued that confessors did NOT have the right to forgive lapsed believers who had sacrificed to the Emperor or bought a certificate saying they did; When Novatus and some of the confessors aligned themselves with the dissident pope Novatian, Cyprian also argued that baptisms in those churches were not valid and required rebaptism, "outside the church, no salvation” (#5053). Persecuted and beheaded during Valerian Persecution.

Origen of Alexandria (and Caesarea) (185-254) child of a mixed class marriage, excluded from political rights/citizenship of his father; as a citizen, his father was targeted and killed during Severus persecution, family estate confiscated; at 18, possibly to help his family, bishop had Origen teach catechesis in Alexandria; defined himself as rhetor-philosopher and adopted ascetic lifestyle - Eusebius claims he paid to have himself castrated! contemporary of Plotinus (neo-platonism)... "weaving together of the philosophic and mystical imperatives" (#5340); studied Hebrew with Jewish sages; he was supported by a patron (Ambrose) and gnostic patroness (unnamed); Origin founded the university at Caesarea, was ordained there and then founded a church, both teacher and presbyter; "the pursuit of reason is inherently a divine task" (#5412) human mind always innately driven toward communion with Logos; allegorical exegesis; immersed himself in scripture, textually, historically and mystically; strong preference for John & Paul; scripture interprets scripture; put together the Hexapla, a 6 column bible with Hebrew and five Greek translations; "Holy scripture all part of the seamless robe of Christ" (#5464); 3 levels of meaning (literal, moral, mystical); only those adequately prepared (self-disciple) can understand mystical or experience divine-human union; higher education as mission to the world; study natural order to contemplate God's design; the material world is training school/suffering ground for repentance, return, and ascent.

Justin Martyr(100-165) leading Christian apologetic; From Palestine; a pagan who explored various philosophies and found Christianity in adulthood; Christian sage presented Christianity to him as "fulfilment of all the aspirations of the ancient world’s many seekers after truth" (#2230); considered himself a philosopher; used Christocentric arguments including fulfillment of prophecies; taught & debated in Ephesus and Rome; described the church as community of those devoted to the Logos/reason of God (#2257); Justin showed Christians could adopt Jewish theology and Greek philosophy; he was beheaded in Rome and died a martyr

Hippolytus of Rome (170-235): possibly a disciple of Iranaeus; focus on liturgy & polity more than philosophy; wrote in Greek; Christian heresies result from philosophy or mysticism prioritized over the Gospel; elevates historical scriptures & apostolic tradition; Alexandrian allegorical style of interpretation (Song of Songs); wrote Apostolic Tradition: standardized ritual prayer, credal baptismal ritual, community of pure elect (vs theology of reconciliation); dynamic soterilogical incarnationalism- accused of being a ditheist

Clement of Alexandria (150-215): connected Christianity with Hellenistic philosophy w/o excessive gnostic speculation; Christianity as true of all wisdom traditions; he was largely uncontrolled by episcopal authority; value of the material world as a training ground given by God for humankind’s good; Father-God drawing all humanity back to divine communion and ultimately angelic metamorphosis of the race through the Logos-Son

New Prophecy/Montanism (155-160 (Revival) - 4th century, starts in Asia Minor) apocalyptic, charismatic revival movement (similar to Pentecostals now); different view of authority - spirit could inspire anyone; pro-gender equality, female prophets & presbyters (Maximilla & Priscilla); nomadic prophet could get salary for preaching; speaking in tongues & others; revived eager expectation of parousia: New Jerusalam would descend in Pepuza; moral reform/rigorous asceticism; prophets may have claimed to be mouthpieces of the Spirit; spreads to Rome & North Africa; end of 2nd century council of bishops gathered to address/condemn montanism; shaped future councils

Elkesaites (2nd century, Palestine): apocalyptic Jewish fusion movement; universal forgiveness; 2nd baptism; Jewish observances, exorcisms, astrology; Jesus one of a series of sages

Ebionites (2nd century, Palestine): "poor ones"; only gospel of Matthew, rejected Paul; retained all Jewish law; Jesus messiah/prophet not God; no virgin birth

Nazarenes (2nd-4th century, Palestine): emphasis on bloodline/lineage; celebrated Jewish (circumcision) & Christian (sabbath) customs; New Testament with Law, Prophets, Writing

Quartodecimans (2nd-4th century, Asia Minor): traditionalists who persist celebrating pascha on the 14th Day of Nisan/using Jewish calendar after many in church celebrated it on the Sunday after

Marcionism (85-154, Rome): elite, wealthy family; son of a bishop; came to Rome in 140 and made large donation to church; excommunicated from Rome for "strange views"; literal exegete; set up his own church including same rituals; survived into 4th-5th century; God of Septuagint violent but God of Luke & Paul was not; developed his own canon; used Paul as a lens to interpret bible and cut out much of Hebrew Bible and New Testament; it only appeared that Jesus had a material body; forced Christians to grapple with what texts are in the canon

Dionysius of Alexandria (?-265): one of Origen's classmates or students; became Bishop; hid during persecution and supported others who bought a certificate or hid (classism?); Dionysis though Novatian was too hardline; Dionysis supported Cyprian in demanding re-baptism for those that were baptized in a Novatian church; the letters of Novatian & Cyprian are still important in the Eastern church today; taught 3 subsistencies and one being in the divine triad; although initially misunderstood agreed it was same as the Latin one nature, three persons; increased expectation that bishop should be highly educated, socially important, and an "articulate apologist" (#5954)

Novatian (200-258): was a church leader in Rome who wanted to take a hardline position against all who "lapsed", by either apostasy, bribery or hiding. Rome disagreed and he was excommunicated. the Novatian churches he established were seen as schismatics/out of communion/who according to Cyprian, their sacraments were without grace because they were out of communion

Stoicism: test and refine the body, mind, and soul to make it instinctively wish to follow the good (#8681)

Lactantius:
Victim of persecuting emperors and also the tutor and eventual political advisor of Constantine

Balisides (135-161, Syria): God is beyond description & existence and emanated a series of intellectual powers

Bardesanes (154-222, Syria): palace theologian, astrologist and poet; moral dualism; some compare his ideas with Origens

Valentinus (120-160, Alexandria and then Rome) the lowest pairing, Sophia (plato's demiurge) accidentally creates the material world; highest heavenly power (Christ) sent Jesus; valued their own apostolic succession; allegorical way of reading text; salvation narrative of fallen powers (30) and their rescue.

Arius of Alexandria (256– 336):
trained in rhetoric and theology at the school of Antioch under renowned thinker Lucian who was critical of Origen but died a martyr, his works did not survive. Arius was a popular ascetic, presbyter and Christian leader in the dockland district; Put his doctrine in verse so he could share it on the docks; disagreed with his archbishop and was suspended; Arius appealed to Eusebius of Nicodemia; Eusebius saw nothing wrong with Arius' approach; Was Jesus divine or just "notionally" divine (#6499); was the logos eternal (uncreated) or timebound (created); Arius argued Logos creature of God and thus divine in an honorary way; rejected self-sameness of God and Jesus; focus on unicity; undeveloped doctrine of the Spirit; the logos is still different than other creatures in that he is unchangeable and infallible; What is the role of scriptures in sorting this out (there was evidence for both schools)? This conflict pushed the church to demand clarity in doctrine in the midst of and in spite of the notion of mystery

Athanasius of Alexandria (296?-373): deacon under Alexander. May have attended Nicaea; opponent of Arianism; instrumental in acceptance of "Nicene faith" in the East; considered a renowned confessor in the West; he had been excommunicated from the East several times, in large part due to his Nicene support; his desire to be reconciled forced discussions about the communion of East and West; Logos divinization paradigm for reconciliation between humans and God; salvation connected to divinizing sacraments (not just commemorative)... compromised on "like the father in all things" (#7044)

Eusebius of Nicodemia (?-342): like Arius, a student of Lucian; opposed Nicenism; friends with Constantine's sister; adviser to Constantine in the East - baptized him; advocated for a vaguer Logos theology or soft Arian position to secure unity in the East; enemy of Alexander

Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390): son of wealthy bishop; studied locally, Alexandria, Athens; great rhetorician; baptized and became an ascetic in response to a violent storm; "Christianity is our philosophy" (#7629); preferred writing to administration; defense of the deity of the Holy Spirit; incarnation: Christ was truly human but sin free - based in God's kenosis; opposed Arian heterousiasts; biblical words reveal relationships (not essences); different roles in the economy of salvation: To the Father, through the Son, in the Spirt; another fundamental theologian in the East

Basil of Caesarea (330-379): wealthy son of a rhetorician; a moderate Origenist; dynamic & politically active; Arian opponent; ascetic with mentor Eustathius and sister, Macrina; influenced the form of monastic rules; used Aristotelian logic to argue against heterousiasism; we can know God only from his revelations to us; Father & son share the same essence- unity in diversity; administered church effort for a great famine; instituted first hospital staffed by monks; considered a fundamental theologian in Eastern Christianity

Aetius & Eunomius of Cyzikos (300-370): metalworker who rose to sophist/logician through natural ability; Radical Arian; served and later mentored Caesar Gallus and his brother Caesar Julian supported him; espoused herousianism (Son-Logos different essence, non-divine); logic! "one could say all that there is to say about God; no mystery necessary" (#7128)

Hilary of Poitiers (315-367): wealthy married man; leading defender of Nicene theology in the West/anti-Arian; exiled to the east for refusing to condemn Athanasius; learned antiphonal hymn singing there became one of the earliest Latin hymnographers; tried to help West understand why homousion was problematic for the East; worked toward broader consensus between homousian and homoiousian interests; learned Greek & studied Origen; called pro-Arian Western pope the anti-christ; a bridge between old west (landowners/upper class) and the ascendent lower class of charismatic leaders (Martin of Tours)

Ambrose of Milan (339-397): scion of noble family; studied rhetoric & philosophy in Rome; knew greek; became a lawyer and then a governor; mediated street fight between Catholics & Arians - was quickly baptized and elevated to bishop; known for his "pastoral civic care" saw the church as the inheritor and transmitter of highest Roman values; chastised even emperors who failed to act with these values; studied Origen & Eastern patristic tradition; translated into Latin in abbreviated/simplified form; philosophical-ascetic life, consecrated virginity, cult of the martyrs, communal hymn singing; worked to reverse passive toleration of religious pluralism; "the emperor is within the church, not above it"

Manichaeanism (2nd-7th centuries): Mani founded, arrested for this theology and tortured & executed; taught an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Its beliefs were based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements

Visigoths (410) Rome sacked by Visigoths and Christian chieftain Alaric, possibly in part due to slow decline since Constantine moved capital to Constantinople; some complained Christianity had let in the barbarians inspiring Augustine to write City of God

Council of Constantinople (381 & 382): In the East many of the pro-Nicene bishops had been exiled; when Theodosius became emperor, he wanted to establish the Nicene faith everywhere; this council occurred shortly after Theodosius arrives in Constantinople in part with the preaching and letter writing of Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory wanted to confirm Nicene homousian of Jesus Christ and add the personal (hypostatic) divinity of the Holy Spirit of God as the only way to make sense of it... teaching the classic doctrine of the trinity. Major resistance to Gregory's leadership so he resigned from the council; not much was decided but an additional Council was called in 382 to issue a creed standard across the Eastern empire; this creed reaffirmed Nicaea and added, "“The Holy Spirit, the Lord and Life-Giver, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is coworshiped and coglorified, who has spoken through the prophets.” (#7615)

Licinius (306-324): Named emperor of the West following Constant's death; Constantine never recognized him as a superior; defeated Miximinus Dai in 313 for much of the Eastern empire; ultimately forced to commit suicide after his defeat to Constantine in 324; Constantine forced his suicide because of his sporadic persecution of Christian soldiers who he suspected were more loyal to Constantine

Council of Nicaea (325): Constantine organized the council to settle the Arian debate and celebrate his 20 year anniversary of being named Emperor at York; Bishops were allowed to make use of imperial post stations and lavished with privileges and gifts; all the bishops were given common amnesty; only a few Western sees were represented; The creed was probably the Jerusalem church's baptismal creed without Origenian glosses; Constantine, with guidance from pro Alexander advisor Hosius insisted on consubstantial language; "The Logos was consubstanial with the father (homousian)"; one of several anti-arian additions; keystone of Alexandrian school was son self-same essence of the father (because Origin criticised God is beyond substance, some argued consubstantial sound like monarchists, Jesus just another form of the Father); Alexandrians argued that If the Logos were not God, his acts in the flesh would have no universal soteriological value. Athanasius insisted: "He became man so that man might become divine" (#6742); still after the council some bishops in the East preferred vaguer language to unite the Nicene's and anti-Nicene; some preferred homoiousian (the son is 'like' the father in all things)

Vandals: (429) much less regard for Roman system and administration; east germanic tribe of Arian Christians; pushed westward in conflict with Huns, successfully invaded North Africa and established a kingdom there and in some Mediterranean islands for 10 years

500-700: second round of tribal invasions in what was the Western Empire (slavic, turkish, germanic); some call this period the dark ages ; although Christopher Kellner dates the Council of Nicaea (325) as the beginning of the Dark Ages

Eastern Roman Empire continues until 15th century with Byzantine emperor controlling army, government and church; bishops decided doctrine but expected to be obedient in political and legal affairs.

(235-285) Rome has 35 senatorial claimants to the throne over the next 50 years

Plague of Cyprian (249-270?)

Near Economic Collapse of the Empire: uncontrollable inflation, decreased coinage value; land values decreased; farming no longer profitable

Pelagius of Rome (360-429); ascetic who reeled against Augustine's claim that human will was not sufficient to live a good moral life - was bad example/advice for the faithful; denied idea of original sing and predestination; lacked a set of catechetical teachings; espoused faithful obedience, repentance, ascetic training; Christianity is a way of life more than a set of doctrines (Eastern Christianity had no problems with his teaching and did not see it as the opposite of God initiated grace); condemned as a heretic at Synod of Carthage in the 5th century

Jerome (347-420) studied in Rome, Antioch, and Syria; ordained but no evidence he ever practiced in a congregation; Latin but learned Hebrew & Greek; started the Vulgate; founded a double monastery in Bethlehem with his benefactress Paula; studied and used Origen but later denounced him; prickly - known for apologetic disparagement; disparaged sexuality and marriage

Pope Damasus (304-384): expanded the range of the papacy’s Western ecclesial dominance; the pope as a great noble of Rome; worked to compile archives and restore monuments (like a Patron); expected and generally received the assistance of imperial legislation to back up his synodical decrees; established standard of Nicene orthodoxy; he established an official canon in 382 and commissioned Jerome to begin translating the Vulgate; the first to act entitled to dictate terms of theological “solutions” to all the churches (including the East) "superepiscopate"

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Pope Felix (?-492): tried to commission the bishop of Constantinople (Acacius) to Rome for court proceedings for trying to unify the East (at Emperor Zeno's request) with the teachings of Cyril of Alexandria and not using Leo's Tome. He then convened a synod and excommunicated Acacius for not appearing.

Maxentius ( ): convinced his dad (Maximian) to come out of retirement so they could rule as co-emperors of the West; conquered Rome and Italy

Edict of Milan 313: Religious Toleration (signed by Constantine and Licinius

Edict of Cunctos Populos: Nicene Christianity the only legally tolerated Christianity & Christianity is the future of Rome; thereafter emperors regularly offered patronage to Christian bishops and scholars

529 minor edict for emperor Justinian advancing Catholic orthodoxy and prohibiting non-Christian teachers from receiving a public subsidy; basically making official Roman Empire patronage of orthodox Christianity; McKuckin argues really wasn't a big deal because the center for religious philosophy had moved to Constantinople long before this; Plato's academy closes in Athens

Pope Gregory the Great (540-604): example of medieval pope filling the void for a dominant central authority invested with sacral authority (#9613); sealed Augustinian Christianity as the system of Latin Christianity, closing down intellectual diversity; became pope in 590, marks transition from Ancient Papacy to Medieval Papacy

John Cassian (360-435) Egyptian ascetic mystic who knew Latin and Greek, suggested a compromise b/w Augustine & Pelagius: "Human free will cooperates with divine grace" (#10176); accused by his enemies as being a semi-pelagian

Council of Chalcedon (451): Called together by Princess Pulcheria and her new husband Marcianus after her brother's untimely death to solve the Christological crisis and stabilize the empire; After the incarnation, Jesus Christ was one being with two natures that worked together in everything he did. Not as Nestorius claimed, that Jesus did somethings as God and some as man; Egyptian representatives withdrew after their archbishop was condemned; council generally endorsed Cyril's teachings but wanted to somehow recognize Leo's Tome; Compromise: Leo's Tome was accepted insofar as it was harmonious with the Cyril's Ephesus statements: "the human nature was consubstantial with general human nature (a veritable union of two natures). The Virgin was Theotokos. There was only one personal subject, the divine Word, who personally assumed human flesh endowed with a rational soul (one person in two natures), " (#12495) Many in Eastern church (Egypt & Syria) refused to accept Chalcedon b/c it leaned too far toward Rome/Nestorius with two natures; Rome also was not happy b/c the council attempted to elevate the episcopate of Constantinople, moving forward the primary episcopates (patriarchates) in reputation, honor, and senior courts of appeal were Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch.

Eusebius of Ceasarea (260-340): church historian Ecclesiastical History; keeper of the archives of the Caesarean church; his contribution at Nicaea helped create the creed although his contribution was not accepted wholesale

Nestorius of Antioch & Constatinople (386-450, archbishop of Constantinople 428-431) How was Jesus God and man? theological language should be precise and emphasize the distinctness of the human and divine natures; people should not pray to Mary as the mother of God (Theotokos); she is the mother of Jesus, not God; relied on what he perceived were the traditional teachings of Syria; anti-origen and anti-allegorical exegesis; Son of man for things done with human nature; Son of God for things done with divine nature; humans could "prosopically" related to God by becoming morally obedient to God - this is how two separate natures could be voluntarily associated; to avoid Apollinarianism, he insisted on an "intimate association" of the two natures rather than a union (#12168); started a reform in Constantinople: stop monks from roaming the streets; stopped independent ladies' liturgies; closed the last Arian church; questioned how princess could be a consecrated virgin with such an active social life;

Cyril of Alexandria: incarnation union of God and humanity and thus a "realization of a return to union of God and the whole human race" (#12085); incarnation and theotokos are divine mysteries we can't completely understand or put into words/language; "selfsame and single person of the divine Word of God in the incarnation now operated in the dual role of his adopted nature (humanity) and his “own nature” of divinity, making these formerly separated things now a seamless unity in his own person" (12131)

Pope Leo (400-461, pope 440-461): instead of relying on a philosopher/theologian like many pope's in the past, Leo drew up his own official Roman statement of Christology (Leo's Tome) for a council at Ephesus that was meeting to decide between Nestorius and ; relied heavily on Tertullian & Augustine; extremely binary, Christ is one single, divine person but equally this one person presides over two quite distinct natures. Jesus does some things as God and some things as as man. Council basically ignored the document because the language was archaic and didn't offer clarity since it basically supported both sides

Eutyches of Constantinople (380-456): Follower of Cyril of Alexandria; accursed of heresy for so strongly preaching a union between God and Man in Christ that it "sounded like there was a fusion of natures into one" (#12392), that one more divine, because he taught it was "irreverant to confess that Christ was just like us" (#12408); accused of being an Apollinarian; a precursor to monophitism; the issue was a major point for council of Ephesus (Robber's council) and Chalcedon;

Apollinaris of Laodicea (310-390): Christological fusion theory: Jesus was human and divine but the human aspects were subsumed in his divinity; considered a heretic; the Divine logos could stand in for the human mind and soul of Jesus

Peter and (probably) Paul executed under Nero's Persecution

The Franks: a germanic people that won a decisive battle in 486 becoming de facto leaders in Northern province (Gaul/France)

under Alexander Severus (222-235), first recognizable Christian buildings appear

The Great Persection: Empire-wide edict demanding religious conformity (303) thought to be spearheaded by Galerius; destruction of churches, burning of scriptures, nobility stripped, civil servants enslaved; widespread arrest of clergy; continued longer in the East b/c of Galerius; on his deathbed, he softened the policy

encouraged leaders to return to targeting Christian communities and leaders

Aphrahat the Sage (early 4th century).a cleric who may have been a bishop; wrote guidelines to ascetics, including on prayer, and about dialogue with Jewish community; influential in later East Christian school "prayer of the heart"

Macarius the Great (300-391): psyeudonym; maybe Symeon of Mesopotamia; this movement accused of being heretics for suggesting baptism needs to be supplemented with deep interior prayer; emphasized a wandering lifestyle, rather than hard labor, and an awareness of the Holy Spirit; wrote the Great Letter and the Fifty Spiritual Homilies,

Symeon Stylites. (390-459): sat on an architectural pillar in fixed meditation starting in 423; disciples brought him food and controlled who visited him; influenced emperors and other nobility; inspired other ascetics to do the same after he died

Mar Isaac of Nineveh: wrote on prayer and mystical experience; named bishop but resigned; went blind from his reading and writing; cherished by both monophysites and Nestorians;

Nitria: closest to the city; inducted in monastic life, living in small communities; modeled very simple style of life; grew to be an intellectual center for all monastic communities in Egypt; associated with Amum (Antony's disciple)

Kellia: even simpler, more rigorous, and more reclusive style of monastic life; loose association of monastic settements or cells; strict poverty; lived solitary accept for gathering weekly for Eucharist; associated with Ammonius and "philosophical pilgrimage toward integrity of vision" (#8946); deeply influenced by writings of Origin; Evagrius of Pontus a famous monk-scholar from her

Scete: small monastic dwelling for and elder and a few advanced disiples; Macarius of Alexandria settled here under the elder Macarius of Egypt

Pachomius (290-346), upper Egypt: ex-soldier; who organized the community around an abbott who had authority over all aspects of community life; also considered "father of monks" (#9008); strict insistence on communal poverty; discipline included physical punishment; the growing organization for his model (at his death, had a federation of nine monastaries) brought condemnation from some ecclesial authorities (power struggle) Western Benedictine monasteries modeled after Pachomius' community;

(486)Romulus Augustus deposed by Obdoacer (a 'barbarian') and the Roman empire "officially" ends in the West

(630's) Muslim armies conquer most of the Eastern Roman Empire

(1493) Constantinople falls to Arab/Muslim conquest; Kellner marks this as the beginning of the modern era