Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Chapter 2: Definitions, History, and Theories of Distance Education…

- - - - Thomas Foster began offering a correspondence course on the subject of mining and preventing mine accidents in Pennsylvania in 1891 (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 37).
        
        Correspondence courses grew throughout Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Nebraska, and other parts of the United States. Primary participants were women and men with career, social, and family responsibilities (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 38).
      - Correspondence study spread throughout England and the United States. Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees were offered via correspondence courses (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 37).
  - - - In the 1930s, universities started utilizing television programs to deliver distance education. During the 1950s, universities started to provide students with opportunities to take series of courses via television (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 38).
      - In the 1980s, satellite technology started to be used to deliver distance education. This made offering distance education courses more cost-effective. The first successful program was in Alaska and offered 6 hours of instruction to 100 villages. In 1985, San Antonio started to offer diverse classes to high schools (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 38).
      - In the 1980s and 1990s, fiber-optic communication systems were developed. This allowed distance education to be more interactive (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 38).
      - Distance education opportunities are continuing to grow with credit and non-credit courses offered. Typically, teachers develop the course, readings, and class assignments. Students read the material, watch videos, complete class assignments, and readings that are assigned. Some students also participate in discussions with other students online (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 39).
  - - - The most influential distance education programs offered at universities in the United Kingdom, the Open University of the United Kingdom, and in Germany, Fern Universitat, and entrance requirements differ greatly from each other (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 39).
        
        The university in England prefers employed, part-time students who are above the normal study age and does not have formal application or entrance processes (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 39).
        
        The school in Germany is much more rigorous to get into and has strict, formal entrance requirements. The dropout rate for this program is very high and only 500 students out of 28,000 graduated with their degrees (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 40)
      - Reasons for offering distance education programs vary and include the need to offer a variety of course offerings, the understanding that many adults have careers, families, and other social commitments, they wish to serve individuals and society by offering a large number of classes, the need to provide further training and education on a variety of career fields, the ability to support technological advances in education, and an understanding of the cost savings offered through distance education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 40).
- - - - Holmberg believe that most focus has been given to the logistics of implementing distance education and not to making distance education equivalent to traditional education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 41).
  - - - (1) Providing student(s) with the ability to operate anywhere,
      - (2) Placing greater responsibility on the student,
      - (3) Allowing faculty members to focus solely on educational tasks,
      - (4) Offering students more choices of courses and instructional pedagogy used,
      - (5) Utilizing effective teaching technology and methods,
      - (6) Mixing media and methods used so subjects are taught in the most effective way,
      - (7) Redesigning and developing courses
      - (8) Preserving opportunities and enhancing them to provide individuals with adaptations that meet their individual differences,
      - (9) Evaluating student achievement in more simplistic ways and not by putting up barriers that focus on place, rate, method, or sequence of courses,
      - (10) Allowing students to start and stop their education and learn at the pace that meets their needs (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 42).
    - - (1) Both student and teacher are separated.
      - (2) The traditional process of teaching and learning are done through writing or another type of method,
      - (3) Teaching should be individualized,
      - (4) Learning should take place through the student being active in their learning,
      - (5) Learning should allow for convenience and the student should be able to be in his or her chosen environment,
      - (6) The learner should take responsibility for his or her own learning and have the freedom to stop or start at their will (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 42-3).
  - - - This theory looks at two variables in the educational programs. One being the level of autonomy the learner has and the other being the teacher and student being separated by distance.
      - Moore claims that distance education is composed of two measurable elements: (1) the provision of dialog, (2) the extent to which an educational program can respond to student needs (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 43).
        
        Moore addresses the learner's ability to be autonomous. In many traditional settings, teacher guides and supports students through the learning process and the student oftentimes depends on the teacher. In distance education settings, students have a higher responsibility for their own learning (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 43).
        
        Three questions are posed to assess the degree of student autonomy: (1) Are learning objectives the responsibility of the teacher or learner, (2) Are resource persons, bodies, and other types of media used the decision of the teacher or the student, and (3) Are decisions about evaluating student learning and the criteria being assessed determined by the teacher or student (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 43-44).
    - - Theory of transactional distance shows that the typology of educational programs involving the separation of teacher from student (Moore, 2013, p. 68).
  - - - Peters claims that distance education can be evaluated by comparing it with how goods are produced (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 44).
        
        Peters makes the claim that the traditional method of teaching was actually a preindustrial form of educating students (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 44).
    - - Rationalization
      - Division of labor
      - Mechanization
      - Assembly line
      - Mass production
      - Preparatory work
      - Planning
      - Organization
      - Scientific control methods
      - Formalization
      - Standardization
      - Change of function
      - Objectification
      - Concentration and centralization
    - - Developing distance education courses is equally important to preparation prior to work (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
      - The teaching process's effectiveness can be determined based on planning and organization (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
      - Courses must be formally structured and student expectations must be standard (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
      - The process of teaching is greatly objectified (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
      - Teaching academics at a distance has changed greatly in comparison to traditional teaching (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
      - Distance education can be cost-effective if resources are concentrated and administration is centralized (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
  - - - The effectiveness of teaching is impacted by whether the student feels like he or she belongs and based on cooperation by the teacher by answering questions, providing answers, and using mediated communication with arguments (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        There are seven background assumptions Holmberg identified (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        At the core of teaching is the interaction between teacher and student(s)m(Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Feelings of belonging and emotional involvement in the subject is key to the distance education learning process (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Students are motivated when they have pleasure in learning (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Student motivation is impacted by the students' ability to make decisions (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Learning is facilitated through student motivation (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Presenting information to students in a friendly manner and providing easy access to the content contributes to students finding pleasure in learning and motivation (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 46).
        
        Students' ability to demonstrate what they have learned helps assess what students have learned (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 47).
  - - - The main idea is that reaching adulthood is concomitant on adults' abilities to see themselves having the ability to self-direct (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
      - Malcolm Knowles spent a large amount of time formulating a theory about adult learning that is based on the research and experiences that relate to how adults learn (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Andragogical processes have seven elements:
        
        A climate is established that promotes adult learning (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Organizational structure is created that enables participatory learning that also allows for participants to engage in group work (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Learning needs are diagnosed and includes differentiation of instruction (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Learning is shaped by directives that include course objectives with a clear achievement and clear directions for how to improve (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Activities are designed and resources and strategies are clearly delineated (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Plans are developed that allows for clarification of resources and strategies that promote the achievement of objectives (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Quantitative and qualitative evaluation processes are used that allow for rediagnoses of students' learning needs (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Knowles identified seven characteristics that are needed in adult distance education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        When adults engage in online learning, they should be able to see what is happening and not just hear it (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        The learning environment should be respectful and dignified for the learners (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Ground rules must be established prior to criticism being provided. It is imperative for adult learners to feel supported (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        There must be a starting point for the course or module and focus on the needs of the adult learner (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 48).
        
        Distance learning courses must have clear objectives established, resources provided/identified, and timelines for assignments or activities (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Adult learners must have courses provided to them where content moves from general-to-specific (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Participants should be encouraged to actively participate with other learners (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
  - - - These elements are divided into three areas which are comprised of maximizing education, increasing dialog, and delivery methods (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Maximizing education
        
        Any medium can be utilized to teach (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Staffing ratios can be higher than they would be if teacher and student had to be in the same location (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Distance learning may be less expensive than traditional teaching in some situations (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Distance education enables the level of education, number of participants, media choices, and product sophistication to be increased (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Distance education courses have the ability to reach out to participants who otherwise would not have access to the courses (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Increasing dialog
        
        Distance education can be organized to enable dialog among participants (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        When students need tutors, the tutor becomes a facilitator instead of a communicator of information (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Group discussion is effective when distance teaching brings relevant information to the students (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        A large number of communities can provide resources that can be provided to learners that support distance education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Method
        
        Multimedia programs that utilize one medium are most effective (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Utilizing a systems approach helps instructors plan distance education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Feedback is a critical component of distance education (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
        
        Materials used for distance education must provide students with ample opportunities to do activities instead of primarily reading, watching, or listening (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 49).
  - - - (1) "Is distance education an educational activity?"
      - (2) "Is distance education a form of conventional education?"
      - (3) Is distance education even possible or do the terms contradict each other?
    - - Industrialized teaching
      - Institutional learning privatized
      - Administrative structure changed
      - Plant and buildings must be different
      - Cost structures changed
    - - (1) Students involved in distance education have a higher tendency to drop out when structure for integrating teaching activities is not achieved (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 52).
      - (2) When teaching acts are not reintegrated satisfactorily, distance education students have a lower quality of learning (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 52).
      - (3) The quality of education and status of learning at distance education institutions may be questioned by other institutions when teaching is not successfully reintegrated (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 52).
  - - - Fordism and post-Fordism are two sociology terms that are being used to show the two sides of the debate (Simonson, Smaldino, & Zvacek, 2015, p. 52)