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Chemistry (Ch 1: Matter, Measurement, & Problem Solving (English…

- - - - Anything that has mass & takes up space
      - Made of atoms or molecules in motion
        
        Atoms Def:
        
        Submicroscopic particles of matter
        
        Building blocks for elements & molecules
        
        Molecules Def:
        
        2 or more atoms combining
        
        Can be of the same or different molecules
        
        Types of properties/changes
        
        Physical properties/changes
        
        Def
        
        Does NOT change a substance into another substance
        
        EX of properties
        
        Density
        
        Boiling point
        
        Mass
        
        Volume
        
        Color
        
        Life EX
        
        The evaporation of alcohol
        
        The forming of frost on a cold night
        
        Types of Physical properties
        
        Intensive properties
        
        INDEPENDENT of the amount of the substance that is present
        
        EX
        
        7 more items...
        
        Extensive properties
        
        Def
        
        1 more item...
        
        EX
        
        4 more items...
        
        Chemical properties/changes
        
        DOES change substance into another new substance
        
        EX
        
        Flammability
        
        Corrosiveness
        
        Reactivity w/acid
        
        Life EX
        
        The burning of lamp oil
        
        The bleaching the hair w/hydrogen peroxide
        
        Chemical Reactions
        
        Def
        
        Process in which substances react & are converted to NEW substances w/ new properties
        
        Result
        
        In a chemical change
        
        LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
        
        Matter is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction
        
        EX of chemical reactions
        
        Sodium metal
        
        1 more item...
        
        Chlorine gas
        
        1 more item...
        
        Sodium chloride
        
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      - 2 ways to classify matter
        
        1) According to state of matter or (physical state or phase)
        
        State of Matter
        
        Liquid
        
        Submicroscopic scale
        
        Disordered
        
        Some freedom to move relative to each other
        
        Little space between
        
        Macroscopic scale
        
        Shape
        
        1 more item...
        
        Compressible
        
        1 more item...
        
        Volume
        
        1 more item...
        
        Gas
        
        Submicroscopic scale
        
        Totally disordered
        
        Much empty space between
        
        Complete freedom of motion
        
        Macroscopic scale
        
        Volume
        
        1 more item...
        
        Shape
        
        1 more item...
        
        Compressible
        
        1 more item...
        
        Solid
        
        Submicroscopic scale
        
        No space between
        
        Essentially in fixed positions
        
        Ordered arrangement
        
        Macroscopic scale
        
        Volume
        
        1 more item...
        
        Shape
        
        1 more item...
        
        Compressible
        
        1 more item...
        
        2) According to composition
        
        Composition of matter
        
        Compound
        
        Def: Substance made of 2 or more different kinds of elements combined in a fixed ratio
        
        Pure substance
        
        Yes
        
        How to make or separate
        
        Made or separated through chemical changes
        
        EX:
        
        BF3
        
        Mixture
        
        Def:
        
        A combination of 2 or more DIFFERENT types of ELEMENTS and/or COMPOUNDS in variable proportions & in which each component retains its own identity (either homogeneous or heterogeneous)
        
        Pure substance
        
        No
        
        How to make or separate
        
        Through physical changes
        
        EX:
        
        Ne, O2, & BF3
        
        Compositions of matter mixture
        
        Made of more than 1 element & or compound
        
        The composition of mixture can vary in proportions
        
        Each component of mixture retains original proerties
        
        Can be formed or separated ONLY by physical changes
        
        A mixture is either
        
        2 more items...
        
        Element
        
        Def: Pure substance made of only 1 kind of atom; simplest form of matter
        
        Pure substance
        
        Yes
        
        How to make or separate
        
        Can't be separated into simpler substances either chemically or physically
        
        EX:
        
        Ne & O2
    - - To seek to understand matter by studying the behavior of atoms & molecules
  - - - In the US
    - - 12 In = 1 foot
      - 5280 ft = 1 mile
      - 16 ounces = 1 pint
      - 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 128 ounces
    - - Prefixes
        
        Convert the base units into units
        
        Ex: 3 x 10 7th power is more convenient than 30,000,000
      - Metric system of measurement chart
        
        These units are all larger than a meter, so there are Multiple meters in 1 of these large units
        
        EX: **Prefix: giga Abbrev: G Meaning:** 1 GM = 10 to 9th power (9) m
        
        mega M 1 Mm = 10 (6) m
        
        giga G 1 Gm = 10 (9) m
        
        kilo k 1 Km = 1000 m
        
        These units are smaller
    - - Instrument w/tick marks
        
        Write down all the digits you are sure of, then write down 1 extra estimated digit
      - Digital instrument
        
        Write down ALL digits given on the instrument b/c the last digit is on the instrument is estimated for you
      - Significant figures
        
        Are inexact numbers
        
        The more SF, the greater certainty implied for the measurement
        
        We have SF so that we don't overstate of understate the accuracy of our answers
        
        Calculation SF
        
        Multiplication & divison
        
        The result should contain the measurement w/the fewest SF
        
        Addition & subtraction
        
        Locate which DECIMAL PLACE contains the very last SF
        
        The result should have the same number of DECIMAL PLACES as the measurement w/the fewest decimal places
- - - - Dalton's atomic theory
        
        1) Each element is composed of tiny indestructible atoms
        
        2) All atoms of a given element have the same mass & other properties that distinguish them from the atoms of other elements
        
        3) Atoms combine in simple, whole ratios to form compounds
        
        4) Atoms of 1 element CANNOT change into atoms of another element. In a chemical reaction, atoms change the way that they are bound together w/ other atoms to form a new substance
        
        The 3 laws that led to the DEVELOPMENT & ACCEPTANCE of the atomic theory
        
        Law of conservation of mass
        
        Antoine Lavoisier
        
        Formulated: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
        
        EX: 7.7g Na 11.9g Cl2 = 19.6g
        
        Mass of reactants = mass of product
        
        Simple meaning: When carrying out a chemical reaction, the total mass of the substances involved in the reaction DOES NOT CHANGE
        
        Principle In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
        
        Law of definite proportions
        
        Joseph Proust
        
        Principle: All samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how they are prepared, have the same proportions of their constituent elements
        
        EX: Mass ratio 16.0g Oxygen / 2.0g Hydrogen = 8.0 or 8:1
        
        The law of definite proportions applies to EVERY compound
        
        Law of multiple proportions #
        
        Principle: When 2 elements (A & B) form 2 different compounds, the masses of element B that combine w/ 1g of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole #s
        
        EX: AB, AB2, AB3 -> Suppose all 3 of the As mass is 1g, & then compare the Bs in each compound, those ratios are going to be small whole #s
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6HbmG8nIrU
        
        Dalton's atomic model
        
        "All matter consists of tiny, indivisible particles"
    - - Experiment performed (1897)
        
        Performed experiments to prob the properties of cathode rays
        
        Thomson measured the charge-to-mass ratio of the particles within cathode rays by deflecting them using electric & magnetic fields
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rb6MguN0Uj4
      - Results of the experiment
        
        Cathode rays must be made of stuff that is (-)
        
        Particles that make up cathode rays are 1000 times smaller than a hydrogen atom
      - How the results were interpreted to reveal another aspect of atomic structure
        
        Atoms have tiny, NEGATIVELY charged particles inside them (electrons)
        
        Electrons are negative
        
        On the whole, atoms are usually neutral
        
        Must be a positive charge to balance the atom
        
        Thomson came up w/the PLUM PUDDING MODEL of the atom
      - THE DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON
    - - Experiment performed
        
        They were measuring how an electrical current flowing between a sharp metal tip & flat metal surface depended on the separation between the tip & the surface
      - Results of the experiment
        
        The motion of the tip is recorded to create an image of the surface w/ atomic resolution
      - How the results were interpreted to reveal another aspect of atomic structure
        
        Led to the development of the scanning tunneling microscpy (STM), a technique that can image & move individual atoms & molecules
    - - Results of the experiment
        
        Millikan determined the charge of the electron which is -160 x 10 C to the negative nineteenth
      - Experiment performed
        
        1) Oil was sprayed into fine droplets using an atomizer
        
        2) The droplets were allowed to fall through a hole into the lower portion of the apparatus where they were viewed w/a light & a microscope
        
        3) During their fall, the drops acquired electrons that had been produced when the air was bombarded w/a type of energy called ionizing radiation
        
        4) These negatively charged drops then interacted w/the negatively charged plate at the bottom of the apparatus
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2HhaQtvICe8
        
        5) By varying the amount of charge on the plates, the fall of the drops could be slowed, stopped, or reversed
        
        6) Millikan calculated the charge of each drop by calculating the mass of the drops and the voltage for each drop that was balanced
      - How the results were interpreted to reveal another aspect of atomic structure
        
        The charge of the electron was discovered in which there was an equation created out of it for calculating the charge of an electron - charge x mass / charge = mass
    - - THE DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEUS
      - Experiment performed
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNp-vP17asI&t=485s
        
        1) Rutherford directed the positively charged alpha particles (Tiny POSITIVELY charged particles much smaller than an atom) at an ultra thin sheet of gold foil
        
        2) The expectation was that the probes should pass through the gold foil with minimum deflection if the mass & charge were indeed like plum pudding
        
        3) A majority of the particles DID NOT PASS through the foil but rather, some were defected & some (1 in 20,000) bounced back
        
        4) Rutherford created a new model. He concluded that + charge & mass of the atom must all be concentrated in a space much smaller than the size of the atom. The atom must contain large space doted w/small regions of dense matter
      - Results of the experiment
        
        Rutherford disproved the plum pudding model & came up with a new model called the nuclear atom
        
        They suggested that the atom has a small, dense nucleus
        
        He proposed the nuclear theory
        
        1) Most of the atom's mass & all of its + charge are contained in a small core called the nucleus
        
        2) Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny - charged electrons are dispersed
        
        3) There is as many - charged electrons outside the nucleus as there are + charged particles within the nucleus, so the atom is electrically neutral
      - How the results were interpreted to reveal another aspect of atomic structure
        
        Later, James Chadwick demonstrated that the previously unaccounted for mass was due to the presence of the neutron
  - - - SUBatomic particle
        
        Neutrons
        
        Charge of 0 (neutral)
        
        Has NO net charge
        
        Mass: 1.0087 amu
        
        Electrons
        
        Charge of -1
        
        Mass: 5.486 x 10 to the -4
        
        Protons
        
        Charge of +1
        
        Mass: 1.0073 amu
        
        Number of protons = number of neutrons
        
        Essentially all the mass of the atom is located in the nucleus
        
        Atomic mass unit -> amu is the unit to express masses of atoms
        
        Def: 1 amu = 1/12th mass of single carbon-12 atom
        
        1g = 6.02214 x 10 to the 23rd amu
        
        Nuclear symbol
        
        Elements are symbolized by 1 or 2 letters
        
        1st letter is always capitalized
        
        2nd letter is always lowercase
        
        Atomic number
        
        ALL atoms of the SAME element have the SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS, so the number of protons defines that element
        
        Atomic number = number of protons
        
        Sometimes the atomic number is left out to reduce repetitiveness
        
        Mass number
        
        Mass number = number of protons + neutrons
        
        Isotopes
        
        Def: Atoms of the same element w/ different masses - The different masses are caused by different numbers of NEUTRONS
        
        Atomic mass
        
        Def: The atomic mass of each element is an average of the different isotope masses
        
        EX: Hydrogen -> 1.00794amu Oxygen: 15.9994amu
        
        Calculating atomic mass
        
        AKA - average atomic mass or atomic weight
        
        Calculated from the masses of the isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances in nature
        
        Formula
        
        1 more item...
        
        EX of how to figure out how many of each subatomic particles are in an atom or molecule :
        
        How many protons, neutrons, & electrons in 31P?
        
        p = 15
        
        n = 16
        
        e = 15
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JjozjUCsSaU
        
        Periodic Table
        
        Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number
        
        Rows = periods
        
        Columns = groups (families)
        
        Ion
        
        Def: An atom or group of atoms with a charge
        
        Cations
        
        Formed when an atom loses electrons
        
        Positive ion
        
        Anions
        
        Negative ion
        
        Formed when an atom gains electrons
        
        The mole
        
        Counting unit devised by chemist to relate to numbers of molecules, atoms etc to lab sized amounts
        
        Def: The amount of material containing 6.022 x 10 to the 23rd particles of that element
        
        6.022 x 10 to the 23rd = Avogadro's number
        
        Ex: There are 6.022 x 10 to the 23rd carbon atoms in exactly 12g of pure carbon-12 isotope
        
        6.02 x 10 to the 23rd particles = 1 mol particles
        
        Types of particles (use Avogadro's number if problem mentions the number of any of these particles)
        
        Atoms
        
        Ions
        
        Molecules
        
        Formula units
- - - - Def: Substance made of 2 or more different kinds of elements combined in a FIXED RATIO
      - Atoms are held together by chemical bonds
      - 2 types of Bonds
        
        Ionic
        
        Bond formed between 2 ions: cation (metal & anion(nonmetal)
        
        Typically formed between a METAL & 1 or more NONMETALS
        
        Metal atom loses e- to form the cation
        
        * Nonmetal atom gains the electrons to form the anion
        
        Ionic compound
        
        A compound held together by ionic bonds
        
        Writing formulas of IONIC compounds CRISS -CROSS!!!!
        
        1) Make sure it is ionic - Starts w/ NH4 or a metal, followed by 1 or more nonmetals
        
        2) Write the cation 1st & anion sym w/charges
        
        3) Use criss-cross method to write subscripts
        
        The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion
        
        The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation
        
        If either ion is polyatomic & NEEDS A SUBSCRIPT GREATER THAN 1, place parentheses around the polyatomic w/the new subscript outside the parentheses
        
        4) If the new subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor
        
        Writing names of ionic compounds
        
        Cation
        
        1) Write the cations name 1st
        
        The cation will be either
        
        2 more items...
        
        Anion
        
        2) The anion will either be
        
        a) Single type of nonmetal (monatomic)
        
        1 more item...
        
        b) Group of different types of nonmetals (Polyatomic)
        
        2 more items...
        
        Covalent
        
        Bond formed between 2 NONMETALS
        
        Molecules may be either compounds or pure elements, as long as they are composed of ONLY METALS
        
        If they are compounds (2 or more different nonmetals), they are called covalent compounds or molecular compounds
        
        Diatomic molecular compounds
        
        Def:Molecule made up of 2 of the SAME kind of ATOM
        
        7 elements occur naturally as molecules containing 2 atoms * pronounced "Brinklehof"
        
        I2
        
        Br2
        
        Cl2
        
        F2
        
        O2
        
        N2
        
        H2
  - - - Gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a compound
      - EX:H2O2
    - - Gives the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound
      - EX Give empirical formula for both
        
        C6H12O6
        
        CH2O
        
        CO2
        
        CO2
    - - Systematic set of rules
      - Shows how to write the name from the formula & the formula from the name
      - Organic compounds
        
        Contain carbon combined w/ H AKA HALOGENS
        
        P
        
        O
        
        N
        
        S
      - Inorganic compounds
        
        ALL other compounds
        
        Ionic compounds
        
        Acids
        
        Binary covalent or molecular compouns