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Tissue biology (Endocrine organs (Pituitary gland (anterior lobe (pars…
Tissue biology
Endocrine organs
Pituitary gland
anterior lobe
pars distalis
bulk of the anterior lobe
three cell types histologically
acidophils
chromophobes
basophils
five cell types functionally
somatotropes
produce growth hormone GH :fire:
regulated by
GH-releasing hormone :check:
somatostatin :red_cross:
50%
lactotropes
15-20%
produce prolactin PRL :<3:
regulated by
dopamine :red_cross:
vasoactive inhibitory peptide :check:
corticotropes
15-20%
produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone ACTH :explode:
regulated by
corticotropin-releasing hormone :check:
gonadotropes
produce
luteinizing hormone LH :checkered_flag:
follicle stimulating hormone FSH :confetti_ball:
regulated by
gonadotropin-releasing hormone :check:
10%
thyrotropes
5%
produce
thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH :recycle:
regulated by
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stellate cells :star:
gap junctions
signal transmitting from pars tubercles to pars distalis
signalling mechanism of anterior lobe
as they interconnect with hormone-producing cells as well
pars intermedia
series of small cystic cavities
pars tuberalis
collar around the infundibulum
highly vascular region
posterior lobe
pars nervosa
contains neurosecretory axons and their endings
vesicles
storage of neurosecretions
three sizes
30 nm
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50-80 nm
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10-30 nm
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nervous tissue
axons
#
end in close proximity of fenestrated capillary network
infundibulum
contains neurosecretory axons
forming hypothalamohypophyseal tracks
not an endocrine gland
blood supply
superior hypophyseal arteries
tuberalis, infundibulum
inferior hypophyseal arteries
pars nervosa
Hypothalamus
coordinates pituitary gland
#
controls autonomic nervous system
produces
ADH
oxytocin
Pineal gland
melatonin
pinealocytes
Thyroid gland
structure
CT capsule
thyroid follicles as functional units
contain colloid
stain as very pale
two types of cells
follicular cells
produce T3 and T4
C-cells
no exposure to follicle lumen
produce calcitonin
used as tumor marker
Parathyroid gland
Parathyroid glands structure
few mm
CT on the post surf of lateral lobes of thyroid
thin CT capsule
Cells
Principal cells
produce parathyroid hormone
essential for life
functions
Ca reabsorption in kidneys
action on bone tissue
regulates Ca and P levels
urinary phosphate excretion
increased so that phosphate concentration lowers
kidney conversion of D-vitamin
intestinal Ca absorption increases
darker granulated
Oxyphil cells
pale looking
clustering habit
Adrenal gland
structure
cortex
steroid secreting
zonation
Zona glomerulosa 15%
stains densely
rich network of fenestrated capillaries
secretes aldosterone
stimulates reabsorption of sodium
excretion of potassium
Zona fasciculata 80%
largest
long, straight cords
produces glucocorticoids
cortisol
Zona reticularis 5%
produces glucocorticoids and androgens
medulla
catecholiamine secreting
cells
pale-staining epithelioid cells
chromaffin cells
ovoid clusters
norepinephrine to epinephrine conversion done by these cells
Bone
overview
specialized CT with crystallized matrix
hydroxyapathite
type I collagen
noncollagenous proteins
multiadhesive glycoproteins
bone-specific proteins that are vitamin K dependent
proteglycan macromolecules
with GAGs linked
GF and cytokines
mineralization
cell-regulated event
storage of Ca and P
lacunae
inside
osteocytes
maintain viability
connected
canaliculi
communicate
via gap junctions
cell types found in bone tissue
osteocytes
#
major bone cell
enclosed by bone matrix
responds mechanical forces applied to bone
smaller than progenitor cells
reduce the amount of cytoplasm
functional states
formative
resorptive
quiescent
(1) osteoprogenitor cells
developmental precursor for osteocytes
#
(2) osteoblasts
.
remains as dividing cell
secretes collagen I and bone matrix proteins
(3) bone-lining cells
give rise to
periosteal cells
innermost layer of periosteum
endosteal cells
line the marrow cavity
dialogue via gap junctions
osteoclasts
resorption bay
directly under osteoclast
derive from granulocyte/monocyte progenitor cells
when activated
clear zone
basolateral region
ruffled border
self repair after injury
granulation tissue produced by fibroblasts
fibroblasts together with periosteal cells
callus formation=stabilizes and binds together
bony callus
bone tissue
dense
compact
spongy
cancellous
trabeculae
thin, anastomosing spike-like protrusion meshwork
types of bones
flat bones
short bones
irregular bones
long bones
diaphysis
epiphysis
metaphysis
marrow
red bone marrow
blood cell supply
sternum
iliac crest
yellow bone marrow
fat cells
can reverse to become a red marrow
periosteum
fibrous CT capsule on the surface of the bone
endosteum
one cell layer thick
osteoprogenitor cells
called as endosteal cells
mature bone
osteons=Haversian system
#
haversian canal=vertical
#
radial pattern of osteons
connected via canaliculi
lamellae
interstitial lamellae
perforating (Volkmann's) canals
nerves
blood vessels
not surrounded by concentric lamellae
horizontal
nutrient foramina
formation
intramebranous ossification
immature bone
not an organized structure
nonlamellar
bundle bone
more cells
randomly arranged
matrix has more ground substance
stains as hematoxylin (violet)
mature bone stains as eosin (pink)
mesenchymal cells
osteoprogenitor cells
osteoblast
osteocytes
matrix calcifies
appositional growth
spicules enlarge
join trabecular network
endochondral ossification
hyaline cartilage model is formed
perichondria cells in the mid region start producing bone-forming cells
periosteal bony collar
chondrocytes in the mid region become hypertrophic
cartilage ossificates
diffusion is inhibited so that cartilage cells die
vascularization of the cavities
endochondral growth
epiphyseal cartilage
gradually replaced by vascularized bone tissue
zones
zone of reserve cartilage
zone of proliferation
zone of hypertrophy
cone of calcified cartilage
zone of resorption
Blood
cells 45%
leukocytes
groups
cells with granules
granulocytes
eosinophils
bilobed
reactions
parasitic infection
allergic reaction
chronic inflammation
basophils
mast cell like functions
bind IgE
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neutrophils
polymorphonuclear
10-12 um
phagocytic funtions
granules
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motile cells
migration
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run by chemotaxis
receptors
Fc-receptor
complement receptors
scavenger receptors
TLR
cells without granules
lymphocytes
different sizes
large
activated
NK
medium
some
small
majority
classes
B cells
T cells
NK cell
monocytes
largest
18um
work as APC
thrombocytes
derived from polyploid cell
small bits of megacaryocytes are being separated
2-3 um
structure of a platelet
zones
organelle zone
structural zone
peripheral zone
membrane zone
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glycocalyx serves as a reaction surface for converting fibrinogen into fibrin
live 10 days
erythrocytes
specs
7,8um
120 days
extremely deformable
membrane proteins
peripheral membrane prot
integral membrane prot
function
hormone delivery
homeostasis conservation by actin as a buffer
transport of waste and CO2
thermoregulation
delivery of nutrients, oxygen
coagulation
enables immune response
plasma 55%
proteins
albumin
colloid osmotic pressure
fibrinogen
globulins
immunoglobulins
antibodies
non-immunoglobulins
liver secretes
hemoglobin
fibronectin
coagulation factos
lacking coagulation factors=serum
Hematopoiesis
embryology
yolk sac
liver
bone marrow
adult
bone marrow
flat bones
HSC
common myeloid progenitor CMP cells
megacaryocyte/erythrocyte progenitor
erythrocyte committed progenitor cells
erythrocyte lineage
megacaryocyte committed progenitor cells
granulocyte/monocyte progenitor cells
neutrofil progenitor cells
eosinophil progenitors
basophil/mast cell progenitors
monocyte progenitors
dendritic cells
common lymphoid progenitor CLP cells
pre-B-cells
pre-NK-cells
pre-T-cells
Bone marrow
consists of
blood vessels
sinusoids
specialized units of blood vessels
sinusoidal system is closed circulation system
newly formed blood cells must penetrate the endothelium to enter circulation
network of hematopoietic cells
not active
transforms into yellow bone marrow
Classification
epithelium
continuous
special cell-cell-junctions
intercellular space is minimal
lines body cavities
surface position
classification
columnar
cuboidal
squamous
CT
classification
loose CT
adjacent to epithelia
loosely arranged
collagen fibers
cells
fibroblasts
maintain the structure
dense CT
tightly packed collagen fibers
only few fibroblasts
CT plus additional elements
calcium
bone
hyaluronan
cartilage
tissue is characterized by its EC material, not cells
muscle
nerve
CT
structure and function
mesenchyme
LCT
characteristics
collagen fibers here and there
ground substance more abundant
beneath epithelia
surrounds the smallest blood vessels
site for inflammatory reactions
immune cells present
DCT
mostly collagen
arranged in various orientations
DICT
reticular layer in dermis
arranged in parallel
DRCT
tendons
ligaments
only fibroblasts
little ECM
ECM
functions
can bind and retain GF
modulates cell growth and differentiation
with the help of CAMs
information transmission across plasma membrane of the CT cells
fibers
collagen
most abundant
flexible
high tensile strength
wavy structures under light mcroscope
under ECM
banding pattern
reticular fibers
consists of collagen fibers
narrow diameter
branching, not forming thick bundles
found from
boundary of CT and epithelia
surrounding
adipocytes
small blood vessels
nerves+muscles
initial element of wound healing
elastic fibers
thinner than collagen
cannot be seen in HE
branching
elastin molecule cross-linked with desmosine
also form
elastic lamellae
elastic artery wall
wall like sheet
ECM
fibers
collagen
elastic fibers
ground substance
proteoglycans
syndecan
aggregan
multiadhesive glycoproteins
fibronectin
laminin
tenscin
osteopontin
GAGs
hyaluronan
turgor
in HE, its lost because of the protocol
CELLS
types
fibroblasts
synthesis of collagen
all ECM components
seen in close proximity to collagen fibers
macrophages
adipocytes
mast cells
adult stem cells
wandering cells types
lymphocytes
plasma cells
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
monocytes
Urinary system
overview
consists of
paired kidneys
conserve
body fluid
electrolytes
acid-base balance
remove
metabolic waste
endocrine activities
synthesis and secretion of EPO
synthesis and secretion of renin
hydroxylation of steroid precursor
structure
10cmx6cmx3cm
adrenal gland
capsule
CT
layers
outer
fibroblasts and collagen
inner
cellular components of myofibroblasts
cortex
outer reddish brown part
consists of
renal corpuscles
glomerulus
bowmanns capsule
nephron tubules
nephron
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medullary rays
straight tubules of the nephrons
collecting ducts
kidney tubules
function
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structure
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interstitial cells
CT of the kidney parenchyma
two types in cortex
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in medulla
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medulla
lighter colored inner part
characterized by
straight tubules
collectively form conical structures
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collecting ducts
capillary network
vasa recta
kidney lobes and lobules
kidney lobe
constitutes of
medullary pyramid
associated cortical tissue
subdivided in lobules
consists of
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paired ureters
transitional epithelium
impermeable to
salts
water
urinary bladder
smooth muscle tissue is bundled
longitudinal
circular
urethra
histophysiology of the kidney
hyperosmotic urine is produced due to
vasa recta
collecting duct
loop of henle
ascending limb cannot pass water
surrounding tissue is hyperosmotic
ions try to balance it by moving to interstitium
urine becomes hypo-osmotic
water moves back if ADH opens aquaporins
blood supply
renal artery
interlobar arteries
arcuate arteries
interlobular arteries
afferent arterioles
glomerulus
efferent arterioles
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lymphatic vessels
2 major vessels
Cartilage
characteristics
avascular tissue
extensive ECM
solid compound
large ration of GAG to collagen II
types
hyaline
''glass'' cartilage
lacunae
chondrocytes reside there
produce ECM
matrix is highly hydrated
types of matrices
territorial matrix
interterritorial matrix
capsular matrix
perichondrium
DRCT where new cartilage cells are being derived
articular cartilage
layers
superficial zone
closest to articular surface
intermediate zone
round chondrocytes randomly distributed
deep zone
small round chondrocytes arranged in short columns
collagen fibrils are positioned between columns parallel to long axis of bone
calcified zone :
calcified matrix
only few chondrocytes
prone to calcification
endochondral ossification
elastic
contains same components as hyaline cartilage
also dense network of branching and anastomosing
elastic fibers
found in ear
does not calcify while aging
fibrocartilage
consists of
chondrocyte matrix material
chondrocytes
dense CT
found in
intervertebral discs
menisci of knee joint
repair
lack of vascularity
immobility of chondrocytes
repair often means production of dense CT
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
overview
lymphatic systems consists of
lymphocytes
diffuse lymphatic tissue
alimentary canal
accumulation of lymphatic tissue not enclosed within a capsule
on lamina propria
associated to mucosa
protects from antigens by two ways
presence of eosinophils
regular presence of plasma cells,
lymphatic nodules
localized concentration of lymphocytes
alimentary canal
secondary nodules
germinal center
develops activated lymphocytes
follicular dendritic cells
with B cell populations
mantle zone
outer line of germinal center
ring of small lymphocytes
aggregations of nodules
tonsils
peyer's patches
vermiform appendix
lymph nodes
diameter 1mm-2cm
afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels
supporting elements
capsule
dense CT
trabeculae
dense CT
reticular tissue
reticular cells and reticular fibers
cells
reticular cells
dendritic cells
macrophages
follicular dendritic cells
cortex
superficial
lymphatic nodules
between superficial cortex and medulla
T cell region
medulla
B lymphocytes
lymphocytes entering the lymph node via High Endothelial Venules
lined with cuboidal endothelial cells
site for
phagocytosis
initiation of immune response
spleen
structure
capsule
myofibroblasts
trabecuale
myofibroblasts
white pulp
consists of lymphatic tissue
mostly lymphocytes
within white pulp
central artery of the spleen
lymphocytes aggregating around central artery
periarterial lymphatic sheath PALS
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red pulp
contains RBC
splenic macrophages phagocytose damaged RBC
iron used in RBC synthesis
splenic sinuses
endothelial cells lining the sinuses are extremely long
non continuous basal lamina
central artery branches into several straight arterioles
penicillar arterioles
terminal arterial capillaires
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immunological functions
filter blood
lymph nodes filter lymph
antigen presentation
activation and proliferation of B and T cells
B cell
production of antibodies
removal of macromolecular antigens from the blood
hematopoietic functions
removal and destruction of RBC
retrieval of iron
formation of RBC during fetal life
bone marrow
thymus
lymphoepithelial organ
bilobed
CT capsule
trabeculae
blood vessels
lymphatic vessels
nerves
unit
thymic lobule
thymic parenchyma
developing T cells
site for T cell maturation
expression and deletion of specific surface CD antigens
thymic medulla
contains thyme corpuscle
blood-thymus barrier
protects developing T cells from exposure to antigens
components
endothelium lining
underlying basal lamina
macrophages
epithelioreticular cells
gut-associated lymphatic tissue
lymphatic vessels
blind capillaries
loose CT
beneath epithelium
remove substances
protein
cells
lymphocytes
70% circulating
immunologic surveillance
30% immature or activated
types
T
cell-mediated immunity
subclasses
helper CD4+
cytotoxic CD8+
regulatory T lymphocytes
gamma-delta-T cells
B
humoral immunity
MHC II
NK cells
granzyme release
cell dies
monocytes
macrophages
granulocytes
eosino
baso
neutro
reticular cells
form elaborate meshwork in lymph nodes
dendritic cells
follicular dendritic cells
langerhans cells
middle layer of epidermis
epithelioreticular cells
in thymus, responsible of structural meshwork within tissue
surface molecules
identification of different types of lymphatic cells
Cluster of Differentiation=CD
Integumentary system
Skin layers
epidermis
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
#
derivatives
mammary glands
nails
sebaceous glands
sweat glands
apocrine
associated with hair follicle
eccrine
not associated with hair follicle
hair follicles
composed of stratified squamous epithelia
distinct layers
stratum basale
presence of mitotically active cells
basal epithelial cells exhibit a pattern of irregular cytoplasmic protursions
increase the attachment surface between epithelial cells and its subjacent basal lamina
hemidesmosomes
focal adhesions
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stratum spinosium
short processes extending cell to cell
nucleus elongates
stratum granulosum
intensively staining granules
keratinocytes have granules , hence the nomenclature
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum
composed of keratinized cells
no nucleus or cell organelles
only keratinized fibers
cells
keratinocytes
produce keratin
keratohyalin granules contain intermediate filament-associated proteins
aid aggregation of keratin filaments
breakdown of nucleus
change of pH
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form epidermal water barrier
lamellar bodies
produced by keratinocytes in SS
unique to mammalian epidermis
produce
pro-barrier lipids
lipid-processing enzymes
secreted to the intercellular space of SC
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melanocytes
dendritic cell
long processes extending from the cell body
no desmosomal connections
produce melanin
produced in granules
when mature=melanosome
transferred to neighboring keratinocytes
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langerhans' cells
APC in epidermis
receptors
MHC I
MHC II
Fc
complement receptors
C3b
involved in delayed type hypersensitivity reactions
allergic
merkel's cells
epidermal cells functioning in cutaneous sensation
dendritic cells in SB
Merkel corpuscle
mechanoreceptor
dermis
dense CT
functions
gives mechanical support
strenght
connected via dermal papillaes/epidermal ridges
skin stretches
epidermal ridges deepen
dermal ridges
parallel assembly
dermal papillae in between
give rise to fingerprint pattern
layers
papillary layer
loose CT
collagen fibers are thinner than in the lower portion
thin layer overall
blood vessels and nerves prominent
reticular layer
thick collagen fibers
coarser elastic fibers
fibers form regular lines of tension
Langer's lines
beneath reticular layer
adipose tissue
panniculus adiposus
smooth muscle cells
arrector pili muscles
connect the follicle
hypodermis
contains adipose tissue
functions
acts as a barrier
provides immunological information
participates in homeostasis
conveys sensory information
performs endocrine functions
excresion functions
sweat
sebaceous
apocrine glands
milk
Nerve supply
free nerve endings
encapsulated nerve endings
meissner
low frequency stimuli
present in dermal papillae
ruffini
thin CT capsule with fluid filled space
axonal endings inside the capsule
stretch and torque
pacinian
deeper in the dermis
vibratory pressure
center=terminal of afferent axon
multilayered capsule of concentric lamellae
Nervous tissue
overview
anatomically divided
central nervous system CNS
brain
spinal cord
peripheral nervous system PNS
cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves
nerve cell collections
ganglia
supporting cells of ganglia
wall of alimentary canal
enteric neuroglial cells
afferent and efferent nerves
neural pathway
functionally divided
Autonomic nervous system ANS
sympathetic division
parasympathetic division
Enteric division
alimentary canal
innervation of
cardiac muscle
conducting system of the heart
purkinje fiber depolarization
smooth muscle
contraction of a smooth muscle alters the diameter or shape of tubular or hollow viscera
gut
gallbladder
urinary bladder
blood vessels
glands
ANS regulates
synthesis
composition
release of secretions
Somatic nervous system SNS
sensory and motor innervation to most parts of the body
composition
nerve tissue consists of two types of cells
neurons
network assembly
synapses
Impulse conduction
action potential
voltage-gated ion channels
K
Na
rapid conduction of action potential is attributable to nodes of Ranvier
as polarization needs to occur only in those parts of the cell membrane
the wider the diameter
structure
cell body
prominent nucleolus
perinuclear cytoplasm
numerous mitochondria
large perinuclear golgi
Nissl bodies
ribosomal content
stack of rER
projections
vary in length
axon
main function
convey the signal throughout
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some protein production in large axon terminals
axons can be between
axon-axon
axon-cell body
axon-dendrite
dendrites
main function
recieve info
carry info to cell body
great processes
dendritic tree
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classified by processes
pseudounipolar
two axons
mostly in sensory neurons close to CNS
bipolar
one axon
one dendrite
multipolar
one axon
+2 dendrites
categories
interneurons
integrate sensory and motor neurons
99,9% belong to integrating neuron class
motor neurons
impulses from CNS
via efferent neurons
somatic
skeletal muscles
visceral
cardiac muscle
glands
smooth muscle
sensory neurons
somatic afferent fibers
sensations of
pain
temperature
touch
pressure
visceral afferenti fibers
impulses from
internal organs
mucous membranes
glands
blood vessels
pain
DO NOT DIVIDE:forbidden:
cell renewal methods
axonal transport
anterograde transport
from center to periphery
retrograde transport
from periphery to center
some areas contain neural stem cells
characterized by filament protein
nestin
able to migrate to tha site of injury
differentiation into new nerve cell
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supporting cells
non-conducting
neuroglial cells
CNS
astrocytes
largest
do not form myelin
regulate K concetrations
maintains K homeostasis as action potentials constantly vary the K CONCENTRATION
POTASSIUM SPATIAL BUFFERING
microglia
seen in routine stained samples
possess phagocytosis properties
in regions of injury and disease
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originate from granulocyte/monocyte progenitor cells
#
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oligodendrocytes
produce CNS myelin
myelin sheath differs from PNS
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myelin sheath has no cytoplasm
Nodes of Ranvier are wider in CNS
few processes compared to astrocytes
ependymal cells
form epithelium-like lining of fluid filled cavities in CNS
single layer of cuboidal/columnar cells
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apical surface has tightly bound junctions
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LACKS external lamina underneath the cells
PNS
satellite cells
in peripheral ganglias
surround nerve cell bodies
analogous to Schwann cells
others
schwann cells
isolate from adjacent cells
myelination
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node of ranvier
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isolate from ECM
surround the projections
functions
repair of neuronal injury
regulation of internal fluid in CNS
insulation of nerve cell bodies and processes that facilitate rapid transmission of nerve impulse
clearance of neurotransmitters in synaptic clefts
physical support for neurons
metabolic exchange between
vascular system
neurons in the nervous system
vasculature
blood vessels are separated from the nerve tissue
by basal laminae
by CT
boundary between nerve tissue and blood vessels
blood-brain-barrier
Female reproductive system
consists of
internal
ovaries
two main functions
gametogenesis
oogenesis
steroidogenesis
estrogens
promote maturation of sex organs
sex characteristics in puberty
mammary glands
promoting breast development
progestogens
promote secretory changes in the endometrium
mammary gland lactation stimulation
lobular proliferation
strucutre
cortex
contains ovarian follicles
surrounded by cellular CT
surface of the ovary
single cuboidal/squamous epi
Germinal epithelium
tumor arise from this layer
tunica albuginea
in the storm of the cortex
developing follicles
stages
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400 mature ova are being released
medulla
loose CT
large contorted blood vessels
lyphatic vessels
nerves
uterine tubes
wall of the uterine tube
serosa
mesothelium and thin CT
muscularis
thick, circular layer and outer longitudinal layer
boundary not seen
mucosa
thin, longitudinal folds
complex in the ampulla, smaller in the isthmus
ciliated and non-ciliated
uterus
two regions
body
upper portion
cervix
lower, barrel-shaped portion
wall
layers
endometrium
mucosa'
myometrium
thick muscular layer
forms the functional syncytium
inner and outer layers
stratum vasculare
perimetrium
outer serous layer
vagina
wall
mucosal layer
outer longitudinal
inner circular
CT islands
muscular layer
numerous transverse folds
lined with stratified squamous epithelia
adventitial layer
non-keratinized
nuclei seen in uppermost cells as well
external=vulva
mons pubis
labia majora
labia minora
clitoris
vestiblue
hymen
external urethral orifice
mammary glands
remain inactive until pregnancy
complete their morphologic and functional maturation
Epithelial tissue
structure and function
covers
exterior body surfaces
line internal closed cavities
endothelium
only some post capillary venules of lymphatic vessels present as cuboidal epithelium
endocardium
mesothelium
selective barrier :no_entry: :check:
secretory portion
receptors
senses
principal characteristics
closely apposed
cell-cell-junctions
morphological and functional
polarity
apical side
cilia
core=microtubule bundle
types
motile cilia
found from
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base of the cilia
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9+2 pattern
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primary cilia
immotile because lacking motor proteins
primary cilia in developing tissues are essential for tissue morphogenesis
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9+0 pattern
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nodal cilia
at gastrulation phase
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microvilli
core=actin filaments
terminal web underneath the brush border
contracts and thus enables movement
brush border
stereocilia
microvilli of unusual length
immotile
passive movement because of fluid flow or vibration of the endolymph
found
in epididymis
proximal part of ductus deferens
inner ear
hair cells
keratinization
lateral side
unique proteins
Cell Adhesion Molecules=CAMs
terminal bar
complex structure
=JUNCTIONAL COMPLEX
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basal side
cell-ECM-junctions
anchoring junctions
focal adhesion
#
anchor
actin filaments
of cytoskeleton to basement membrane
hemidesmosomes
anchor
intermediate filaments
of cytoskeleton to basement membrane
basement membrane
thin line of proteoglycans which easily is unseen because of the thickness of the CT right adjacent to basal membrane
basal lamina
non-epithelial cells
called the external lamina
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consists of 50 proteins
collagens
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laminins
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proteoglycans
beneath
reticular fibres=collagen III
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connections to CT
anchoring fibrils
fibrillin microfibrils
discrete projections of the lamina densa
organ-specific
functions
compartmentalization
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filtration
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structural attachement
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tissue scaffolding
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regulation and signalling
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basal cell membrane infoldings
when active transportation occurs
mitochondria concentrated on this area
salivary gland ducts
basal surface attached to underlying basement membrane
epithelial cells lacking free surface
cell aggregate formation
epitheloid tissue
organization is typical for endocrine glands
interstitial cells in testis
Leydig cells
in ovaries
lutein cells
pancreas
islets of Langerhans
parenchyma of adrenal glands
adenohypofysis
epithelia patterns are formed by accumulations of CT macrophages
responding to injury and infections
tumors derived from epithelium
derived from mesenchyme
morphology
types
number of cell layers
single
stratified
pseudostratified
transitional
uppermost cells can be squamous to cuboidal depending on its degree of stretch
underlying cells are cuboidal or columnar
shape of the cell
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
functions
secretion
absorption
transportation
protection
receptory function
GLANDS
types
endocrine
exocrine
types
apocrine
secretion via lipoprotein envelope
holocrine
cell enters apoptosis
secretory products are discharged into lumen
merocrine
exocytosis of vesicles
sizes
unicellular
multicellular
Adipose tissue
overview
energy homeostasis
types
brown
multilocular
smaller than white
nucleus is on the side but not flattened
in HE
cytoplasm of a multilocular adipocyte
empty vacuoles
fat is lost during preparation
lots of mitochondria
brown color
abundant in newborns
white
layer under skin
thermal insulation
lactating women
mammary fat pad
provides lipids and energy for milk production
site for synthesis of different GF
modulate responses to different steroid, proteins and hormones
affecting mammary gland function
produces hormones
leptins
inhibition of food intake
stimulates metabolic rate
angiotensinogen
raises blood pressure
steroid hormones
converted to active form
GF
TNF-a
.
TGF-ß
.
IGF-1
Connected with development of diabetes
IL-6
.
prostaglandins
.
structure
morphology
sphere
oval when joined together
nucleus flattened and displaced to other side of the cell
adipose tissue
contains blood vessels
reticular fibers shown with silver stain
collagen III
regulation of the amount
two physiologic systems
short-term weight regulation
GI tract
ghrelin :fire:
peptide YY :recycle:
long-term weight regulation
leptin
protects the body against weight loss
insulin
accumulation of fat
others
glucocorticoids
pituitary gland hormones
thyroid hormone
mobilization
neural mechanism
norepinephrine release
lipase activation
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hormonal mobilizxation
insulin, thyroid hormone, adrenal steroids release
glucagon, GH,
lipid utilization
Muscle tissue
overview
myofilament interaction
myofilaments
thick filaments
#
myosin
thin filaments
actin
make the most of muscle cell cytoplasm=sarcoplasm
classified by their assembly
smooth
in HE
stains evenly with eosin
corkscrew-like appearance when fixed because of contraction
distinguishable from fibroblasts
non-contractive appearance
nucleus in the middle
cytoplasmic organelles concentrated to nearness of nucleus
structure
sarcoplasm is filled with thin filaments
thick myosin filaments scattered around
thin filaments are connected to dense bodies
dense body
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specialized for
long period contraction
peristaltic movements
smooth muscle cells secrete CT matrix
striated
visceral striated muscle
cardiac muscle
intercalated discs
gap junctions
nucleus is in the middle of the cell
large mitochondria
adjacent to myofibril
skeletal muscle
skeletal muscle strings are called muscle fibers
tube-like structure enclosed by endomysium
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types
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layers
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skeletal muscle cell
sarcolemma=cell membrane
Cytoplasm=sarcoplasm
cells connected with CT
at the end of muscle
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CT contains
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muscle contraction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVcgO4p88AA
Cardiovascular system
overview
elements
blood vessels
arteries
classification
medium/muscular arteries
more smooth muscle and less elastin in tunica media
internal elastic membrane in tunica intima
tunica media is almost completely smooth muscle tissue
tunica adventitia
relatively thick
same thickness as tunica media
small arteries and arterioles
small artery
8 layers of smooth muscle
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tunica intima has elastic membrane
arteriole
may not have elastic membrane in tunica intima
serve as flow regulators
precapillary sphincters
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capillaries
network allowing gasses, metabolites and waste products move through thin walls via blood
diameter of a RBC
structure
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classification
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large/elastic arteries
multiple sheets of elastic lamellae
recoil in diastole
tunica media relatively thick
tunia adventitia relatively thin
veins
classification
small veins
0,1mm<diameter <1 mm
continuous with muscular venules
muscular venules
medium veins
diameter<1cm
accompanied by arteries/arterioles
valves are characteristic
three tunics are most evident
media
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adventitia
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intima
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venules
0,1mm<diameter
receive blood from capillaries
pericytes
umbrella-like connections between endothelial cells
large veins
1cm<diameter
superior/inferior vena cava
accompanied with arteries
layers
intima
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media
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adventitia
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lumen larger
thinner wall
valves
semilunar flaps
general features
walls are composed of three layers
tunica media
circumferential smooth muscle
produces all the fibers
also fibers
elastic
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reticular fibers
proteoglycans
tunica adventitia
CT
longitudinally arranged collagen
elastic fibers
large arteries and veins
vasculature of the vessel
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nerves
nervi vascularis
tunica intima
three compoenets
basal lamina of epi
subendothelial layer of loose CT
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single layer of squamous epi
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atypical vessels
coronary arteries
HE
internale elastic membrane gets thinner while aging
loose consistency of tunica adventitia
dural venous sinuses
broad spaces of dura mater
lined with endothelial cells
devoid of smooth muscle :no_entry:
great saphenous vein
muscular vein as it has so much smooth muscle tissue in it
lymphatic vessels
transports lymph
unidirectional
capillaries are more permeable than blood capillaries
collect excess proteins
heart
structure
cardiac muscle
fibrous skeleton
4x fibrous rings
DICT
encircle
base of 2 arteries
provide attachment site to four leaflets of valves
allows blood to flow only one direction
membranous part
dense CT
conducting system
purkinje cells
coronary vasculature
wall
layers
epicardium
visceral layer of pericardium
single layer of mesothelial cells
blood vessels and nerves nourishing the heart
15-50 ml pericardial fluid
myocardium
cardiac muscle
atria wall thinner than ventricle
endocardium
inner layer of endothelium
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middle layer
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deeper layer of CT
valves
layers
spongiosa
loose CT located on atrial or blood vessel side of the valve
collagen and elastic fibers
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ventricularis
dense CT with elastic fibers
covered with endothelium
fibrosa
core of the valve
fibrous extensions from DICT of skeletal rings of the heart
function
contraction
conducting system
nodes
sinoatrial node
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atrioventricular node
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regulation
autonomic nerves
parasympathetic
aset.choline
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sympathetic
norepinephrine
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monitoring
CNS monitors arterial pressure and heart function
via cardiovascular receptors
baroreceptors
volume receptors
chemoreceptors
Oral cavity and digestive system
digestive system
alimentary canal
alimentary mucosa
functions
absorption
nutrients
water
electrolytes
vitamins
cholesterol
barrier
noxious substances
antigens
pathogenic organisms
secretion
enzymes
HCl
mucin
antibodies
immunologic protection
first line of immune defense
lymphatic tissue
eg Peyer's patches
oral canal
glands
parotid gland
submandibular gland
sublingual gland
tonsils
palatine tonsils
tubal tonsils
pharyngeal tonsils
lingual tonsils
masticatory mucosa
types
parakeratinized
keratinized
non keratinized
layers
stratum basale
stratum spinosum
stratum superficiale
thick papillary layer
loose CT
blood vessels
nerves
deeper parts
reticular layer of dense CT
tongue
musculature
striated muscle in three layers
unique
papillae
cover the dorsal side
types
foliate
parallel low ridges
deep mucosal clefts
taste buds present
circumvallate
dome-shaped
rare
lingual salivary glands open to the stem of the structure
taste buds present
fungiform
mushroom-shaped
tip of the tongue
taste buds present
filiform
smallest
most numerous
taste buds
cell types found in taste buds
neuroepithelial cells
supporting cells
basal cells
teeth
layers
dentin
innermost layer
cementum
thin layer
covers the root of the tooth
enamel
Ca5[(PO4)3(OH)]
Salivary glands
submandibular
mixture of mucous and serous acini
sublingual
mainly mucous acini
Mucous acini stain more weakly than serous acini
p
aired
p
arotid
mainly serous acini
S
erous
S
tains
S
trongly =
SSS
Esophagus and GI tract
overview
alimentary canal layers
submucosa
dense irregular CT
blood vessels
nerve fibers
glands
#
serosa
simple squamous epithelia
small amount of CT
adventitia
only CT
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large blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
mucosa
lining of epi
CT layer underneath
basal lamina
muscularis mucosae
smooth muscle tissue
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functions
serves as a barrier
absorption
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secretion
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muscularis externa
smooth muscle
inner circular
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outer lonigtudinal
CT in between
esophagus
mucosa
non keratinized stratified squamous epithelia
submucosa
DICT
glands
lymphatic nodules
muscularis externa
upper third is striated
lower parts smooth
stomach
gastric mucosa
simple columnar
tight junctions
large apical, mucinogen granules
fundic glands
structure
pit
isthmus
long glandular tubes
shallow pits
cardiac glands
more branched tubular structures
lowest
pyloric glands
straight glandular structures
tallest
gastric muscular externa
complex
serosa
continuous with parietal peritoneum
via greater omentum
small intestine
subdivisions
jejunum
lymphatic capillaries
ileum
duodenum
cells
enterocytes
absorbing
tall columnar epithelia
striated border
tight junctions
enzyme production and secretion
goblet cells
#
mucin
apical side
mucinogen granules
paneth cells
antibicrobial substance secretion
bases of intestinal glands
large acidophilic vesicles on the apical side
enteroendocrine cells
hormones
m cells
cover lymphatic nodules
large intestine
no villi, many goblets, many surface absorptive cells, crypts of Lieberkühn
mucosa
smooth surface
glands
simple columnar epithelium
absorption of water
no paneth cells
#
lamina propria
thick layer of collagen
pericryptal fibroblast sheath
GALT
lymphatic nodules
lymphatic vessels
muscularis externa
outer layer of muscular externa
condensed into prominent longitudinal bands
Rectum and anal canal
distinguished by
transversal rectal folds
mucosa
many goblet cells
straight tubular intestinal glands
anal glands
mucus production
stratified columnar epithelia
associated organs
Liver
physiology
produce plasma proteins
lipoproteins
protrombine
immunoglobulins
glycoproteins
albumin
regulates
glc levels
toxic metabolism
oxidation
conjugation
secretion
bile secretion
endocrine functions
modifies the action of hormones
vitamin D
thyroxine
GH
insulin and glucagon
stores vitamins
vitamin A
vitamin D
vitamin K
blood supply
dual blood supply
hepatic artery
25% of blood
mixes with portal vein blood
hepatic portal vein
75% of blood enters via
toxic substances
RBSs and breakdown products of RBC
nutrients
endocrine secretions
low oxy
hepatic sinusoids
structural organization of the liver
components
parenchyma
''the functional tissue of an organ as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue''
contains key functional elements of the given tissue
CT stroma
''the supportive tissue of an epithelial organ, tumor, gonad, etc., consisting of connective tissues and blood vessels''
sinusoidal capillaries
perisinusoidal spaces
space for exchanging material between blood and liver cells
liver lobules
classic lobule
portal lobule
emphasis on exocrine functions
bile draining into axial bile duct
liver acinus
correlation between blood perfusion, metabolic activity, liver pathology
closest to short axis and blood supply
in between
closest to terminal hepatic vein
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cells
hepatocytes
peroxisomes are prominent
biliary tree
lined by cholangiocytes
canal of Hering
continues as a intrahepatic bile ductule
which turns out to become a bile duct
Gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile
structure
mucosa
numerous deep folds
muscularis externa
randomly oriented
thick layer
Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses
adventitia
blood vessels
adipose tissue
Pancreas
gland
exocrine
enzymes
acinar cells
centroacinal cells forming the intercalated duct wall
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endocrine
#
islet of langerhans
Respiratory system
divided in two portions
conducting portion
nasal cavities
chambers
three regions
respiratory region
olfactory region
olfactory mucosa
cell types found
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olfactory nerve bundles
olfactory glandular structures
nasal vestibule
nasopharynx
larynx
trachea
four layers
submucosa
slightly denser CT
cartilaginous layer
C-shaped hyaline cartilage
mucosa
ciliated
pseudostratified epithelia
fiber-rich lamina propria
adventitia
CT that binds the trachea to adjacent structures
tracheal epithelium
primary bronchi
identified by
cartilage plates
circular layer of SM
function
warming
moistening
removal of particulate materials
mucous and serous secretions
respiratory portion
alveolar ducts AD
alveolar sacs AS
respiratory bronchioles
structure
diameter 1 mm or less
epithelia changes from pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epi to simple ciliated columnar epithelium
goblet cells reduce in number while going towards the terminal bronchiole
no sub epithelial glands
thick SM layer
no cartilage
small bronchioles
simple cuboidal epithelium
clara cells
non-ciliated
protruding apical domains
alveoli A
cell types
type I
alveolar cells
40%
joined by occluding junctions
air-blood-barrier
not capable of cell division
type II
alveolar cells
secretory cells
cuboidal cells
tend to aggregate to septal junctions
bulge into air space
granules seen by TEM
lamellar bodies
produce surfactant
Male reproductive system
consist of
testes
functions
steroidogenesis
spermatogenesis
androgens are essential
testosterone
embryonic development
structure
thick CT capsule
tunica albuginea
divided in lobules (250)
incomplete septa
lobules
1-4 seminiferous tubules
Sertoli cells
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highly convoluted seminiferous tubules
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spermatogenic cells
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CT stroma
Leydig (interstitial cells)
genital excurrent ducts
efferent ductules
efferent ductules are lined with pseudo stratified columnar epithelia
ductules gain three layered smooth muscle coat as going further in the duct
sawtooth appearance
fluid secreted in seminiferous tubules is reabsorbed in efferent ductules
in proximal area
20 ductules connect rete testis
epididymis
crescent-shaped strucutre
posterior and superior to testis
consists of
efferent ductules
duct of epididymis
cells
principal cells
pseudo stratified columnar epithelium with cilia
secrete
glycerophosphocholine
sialic acid
steroids
basal cells
small, round resting on basal lamina
divided into
head
body
tail
sperm acquires
motility
ability to fertilize
sperm head
decapacitation
inhibits fertilizing ability in a reversible manner
decapacitation factor is released in capacitation reaction in fertilization
ductus deferens
continuation of epididymis tail
pseudo stratified columnar epi
reminds of epididymis
accessory sex glands
seminal vesicles
paired
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
non-ciliated
secretes fructose-high material among sperm
prostate gland
largest
secretes alkaline fluid
contributes to the formation of seminal fluid
structure
tubuloalveolar glands
three layers
mucosal
glands secrete directly into urethra
intermediate submucosal layer
peripherial layer
prostatic parenchyma
central zone
surround ejaculatory ducts
25%
peripheral zone
70%
most susceptible to inflammation
transitional zone
5% prostatic glandular tissue
susceptible for benign prostatic hyperplasia
periurethral zone
mucosal and submucosal glands
produce
PSA
33kDa
normal conditions
secreted in prostatic gland alveoli
incorporated into seminal fluid
4ng/ml
cancerous conditions
10ng/ml
67% chance of having cancer
also an indication of
benign tumors
prostatatis
PAP
fibrinolysis
bulbourethral gland
produce lubrication in sexual arousal
penis
consists of
two dorsal masses of erectile tissue
vascular endothelium
arteries
dilate when erection
smooth muscle surrounding vascvulature
irregular smooth muscle bundles
ventral mass of erectile tissue
urethra is embedded
tunica albuginea
