5. Sino-Japanese War (1937-41)
1. Domestic context for aggression
Shift of power following Manchuria from civilian to military
15 May Incident had seen assassination of PM Inukai who had tried to solve Manchuria to give some sovereignty to China
Inukai = last PM to come from a political party - army takeover
But NB factions in military
The Imperial Way Faction (Kodo-ha) which favoured war with USSR and led Mukden Incident
The Control Faction (Tosei-ha) favoured expansion into China. Imperial Faction brought under their control in 1936 following February 26 Incident
PM Koki Hirotoshi increased military budget
Consider ‘civilian-military’ split - historiography - was govt hijacked by military or was expansionism a rational response to economic and strategic threats
Growth of ultranationalism
Cardinal Principles of the Nation (1937) Min of Ed. publication encouraged devotion to the nation
Press praise in 1932 for suicide of Japanese officier who killed himself for shame of capture
Growing belief in 1930s that Japan should liberate Asia from Western domination, for eg Tatsuo Kawai’s The Goal of Japanese Expansion (1938)
2. Japanese expansion (1933-37)
Co-ordinated policy? John Boyle sees Manchuria (1931) and China Incident (1937) as separate. Louise Young regards them as inextricably linked: Japan had ‘mounting ambitions to absorb all of China’s vast territories’.
Jehol Province south of Manchuria taken in Feb-March 1933 - forced Chiang Kai-shek to sign Tanggu Truce (May 1933)
Japan expands to Inner Mongolia by 1937
Amau Declaration (April 1934) = major naval reconstruction programme and exercise of protectorate over China
Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1936) signed with Germany
3. Outbreak of Sino-Japanese War (July 1937)
Initiated by Marco Polo Bridge Incident (7 July 1937j
Phase One (1937-38)
Large-scale offences in Northern and Central China. Shanghai falls November 1937
Rape of Nanjing (December 1937) - approx 200,000 - 300,000 Chinese killed. Chiang did not seek peace however.
October 1938 - Nationalists move capital to Wuhan but this falls to Japan (forcing them to create new base at Chongqing. Japanese captured China ‘s last major port, Guangzhou, which undermines Nationalists
Positions held by Japanese and Nationalists remain largely unaltered until 1944
Phase Two (1939-1944)
Japan forced into war of attrition - Chiang does not negotiate
March 1940 - Japanese appoint former Nationalist Wang Jingwei to head a puppet Chinese regime
Use of ‘Three-All Campaign’ - ‘Kill All, Burn All, Loot All
Japanese focused on US and Bristish campaigns after 1941 - 1 million Jp troops remain in China but figure is insufficient to break stalemate
Phase Three (1944-1945)
April-December 1944 = Operation Inchigo - major offensive against Chinese Nationalists, aimed at destroying US bomber bases in south-central China
Early 1945 - Japanese withdraw from Southern China and concentrate on defending Manchuria. Soviet troops occupy Manchuria from August 1945
(Actions of Second United Front = brief alliance between Chinese Nationalists and Communist Party)
Communists agreed to stop confiscating and redistributing landlords’ land to peasants
Eighth Route Army would operate under Chiang
Chiang promised to abandon attacks on Communists
4. International Response
Limited - Britain and France more concerned with Nazi aggression in Europe, esp after Hitler invaded Austria