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EARTHQUAKES (Waves (EQs occur as a series of events (Foreshocks, Main…

- - - - *2 faster than s waves
      - Spread out from epicenter
      - Compressional waves
      - Don't change shape
      - First wave
    - - Vibrate 90 degrees to dir. of travel
      - 2nd set of waves
      - Generated in crust
    - - Love + rayleigh waves are most destructive
      - Rolling waves - buildings cannot withstand them
  - - - Intensity/damage caused
      - Opinion of observers
      - 12 point scale
      - Direct surveying may not needed bc of satellite imagery
    - - Measures magnitude + size
      - Shows peak ground motion v distance form epicentre
      - Every incremental increase - x3 the energy released and x10 amplitude of waves
- - - - The basin is opening at a faster rate than the movement of the Eur. + Afr. plates
      - Diff. in rate of movement = stresses in crust
    - - To the west, Mediterranean Sea
      - Opening 3cm/year
      - Is pulling the Apennines = extension faults
    - - Rotates anticlockwise + subducts below Eur +
      - Intraplate movement
      - Formed the Apennines
        
        Deposition of sediment on edge of land mass during SD = an accretionary wedge (Apennine fold mt belt)
    - - Cause of this EQ was due to a shallow fault across the Apennines - may prev. events
      - Is thought that the 2016 EQ is the seimic gap between the '97 + '09 events
      - SGT states: segments of an active fault that have no slipped for a long time are most likely to experience an EQ, as that is where stresses build
      - 20km gaps now exist from Amatrice to Assisi = future activities along fault are possible
  - - - Socio-Economic
        
        Destruction of historic buildings = economic impacts on a rural region dependent on tourism
        
        Overall loses estimated at 11 bn Euros
      - Environmental
        
        Long period of after shocks = continued damage - especially in weakened buildings + psychological effects
      - Political
        
        School rebuilt in 2012 for €700,000 collapsed = local complaints about officials.
        
        Money allocated by central gov. to create 'Safe Schools' in Apennine zone - 200,000 in risk zones
        
        New national plan drawn up for preparedness - not j emergency planning
        
        Special commissioner to oversee rebuilding + recovery but there are concerns:
        
        Corruption in local govs.
        
        Burreaucracy
        
        Slow decision making
        
        Illegal construction being allowed to go ahead
        
        Decision about making insurance compulsory
        
        Would increase householder responsibility
        
        Could be tax deductible
        
        In Japan >60% have insurance
    - - Socio-Economic
        
        Blocked roads = delayed emergency response
        
        300 historic buildings destroyed - tourism
        
        4000 homes destroyed - homeless + in need of emergency shelter
      - Environmental
        
        Destruction of homes, road infrastructure
        
        Large rubble clearance needed
  - - - Based on past EQ records, crustal strain mesurements
      - Helps prioritise areas needing preventative measures
      - Lack of attention by local authorities to planning processes
      - 2009 - 2016 events occurred in the highest risk zones
  - - - Bulldozer, 12 helicopters (road accessible was difficult)
      - Tent cities and emergency kitchens
      - 5,000 people responded in immediate aftermath (half were volunteers)
      - €50m emergency funding from national government
      - Rescue teams asked locals to unlock Wi-Fi so home networks could assist with comms.
      - Survivors, rescue teams, sniffer dogs
    - - Residents' taxes in worst-hit areas cancelled
      - Over 600 restaurants across Italy put the local dish of Amatrice on the menu and donated €2/order to the Red Cross
  - - - Land use zoning
      - These methods are not deployed close to the fault
    - - Building design - '73 anti-seismic construction laws - wooden not concrete beams
        
        Concrete beams less resistant to stress
        
        Mafia do not meet planning standards i.e. use of concrete beams
      - Some reconstruction after 2009 has been slow - bureaucracy in releasing LT construction aid
      - Community Preparedness
        
        No early warning system
        
        Shallow EQs - no time to send SMS alerts/public sirens
        
        Night time - unprotected, asleep, no time to get to safety
    - - Short-Term
        
        Some social media platforms amplify official messages for those impacted by EQ
        
        12 helicopters, survivors, police, fire + rescue teams, sniffer dogs, 5000 people
        
        Rescue teams flown in coz of remoteness + destruction of road infrastructure
        
        Tent cities + emergency kitchems
        
        Local Wi-Fi passwords for comms. access
        
        €50 million from national gov. in immediate usee
        
        Italian restaurants put Pasta Amatricia on menu - €2 to NGOs for each dish
      - Long-Term
        
        New National plan: Casa Italia
        
        Seismic standards to building thruout Italy
        
        €90 billion to reinforce all the historic buildings in next 50 years
        
        'safe' schools' - 20,000 in the 2 highest-risk areas - have suffered in each of the last 3 major EQs
        
        Needs to take into consideration all the scientific research recently on mitigation
        
        Special Commissioner
        
        Will oversee recovery in Amatrice + surrounding areas
        
        7 years on from 2009 the town centre has not been repaired + still temp. housing
        
        Funding issues, corruption, illegal construction = obstruction of reinforcement of old buildings + application of seismic codes to new ones
        
        Insurance
        
        Can increase societal resilience
        
        Under 1% have EQ insurance - expect the state to pay
        
        Could make it compulsory
        
        Premiums made tax deductible - incentive
        
        Would reflect the global move towards disaster risk education rather than paying for damage after the event
        
        Detailed National Hazard Map
        
        Based on past records of EQs, location of active faults, crustal strain
        
        Shows areas needing priority in preventative measures
        
        Concerns that authorities do not pay this enough attention in planning process
        
        2009 and 2016 events occurred in the highest risk zones
        
        Resilience
        
        Compliance with building codes
        
        64% of pop. live in areas where buildings are vulnerable to EQs
        
        Shallow faulting pattern along mountain crests
        
        Severely affects historic towns dependent on tourism
- - - - Bullet trains
      - Valley roads
      - Bridges
      - Tunnels thru Alps to islands
    - - Coal, oil, food, wood, grain
    - - Densely populated
      - Large cities:: Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya
  - - - Most powerful EQ in Japan
      - Shifted Earth on its axis
  - - - Drowned 110,000 nesting birds in wildlife refuge
  - - - Short-Term
        
        16,000 dead
        
        4.4 m households without electricity for several weeks
        
        45,000 buildings destroyed
        
        15 ports affected - supplies can't be brought in
        
        1/2 million evacuees in temp. shelters
        
        Deprived of drinking water + resources
        
        Measures to contain overheating at some nuclear reactors may render them unstable
        
        1/5 domestic nuclear electricity plants closed temp. = electricity shortages
        
        Blackouts in E half of Honshu for several weeks
        
        Disasters reduce economic activity in short-run
      - Long-Term
        
        Pop. decrease
        
        Cost of EQ, including reconstruction, estiamted at £185 bn
        
        Power-cuts increased cost
        
        Power shortages + need to repair damage = many factories suspending production = shortage of parts may affects other areas of country + overseas = decline in ind. production
        
        Radioactivity in Pacific affected fishing
        
        Shut-down of nuclear reactors
        
        Fukushima decomissioned = elec. concerns fro Tohoku region
        
        Some recon. 5 years later
        
        Some communities relocated
        
        The 4 prefactures most affected account for 7% of pop. + economic output
        
        The scale of disaster reduced potential growth thru damage to tangible fixed assets, injury + death
        
        Subsequent recon. efforts can boost output growth (supplementary budgets to finance reocn. will expand available fiscal resources)
    - - Short-Term
        
        Fires - 2 oil refineries
        
        Tsunami drowned 110,00 nesting birds in wildlife refuge
      - Long-Term
        
        Soils contaminated by radiation
        
        Radioactivity in Pacific
        
        Radioactive particles contaminating tap water in Tokyo
        
        Radioactive contamination of local agricultural products
    - - Short-Term
        
        Recon. + recovery are primary tasks
        
        Criticism of treatment of evacuees
        
        Criticism of relief efforts in NE (inadequate food, fuel, shelter)
        
        Gov. reconstruction, tougher regulations, fired some officials
        
        Strong ties w Russia - they delivered 5 fuel tankers in first 2 weeks
      - Long-Term
        
        Subsequent recon. efforts can boost output growth (supplementary budgets to finance recon. will expand available fiscal resources)
        
        Recon. will be funded by defecit spending - adds to national debt
        
        Recon. = debates of deployment of resources
        
        May need to shift funds from one part of budget to another to provied for rebuilding
        
        Concerns w nuclear power - strong public opinon
        
        EQ has highlighted strategic vulnerabilities
        
        Decision-making capabilities
        
        Suppl-line security in ME, Indian Ocean + SE Asia
        
        Role of military overseas
        
        International response - stronger central decision making may affect pace + dir. of the following:
        
        US alliance
        
        Central of Japan's internaional pos.
        
        US maintains power in NE Asia - imp. with the rise of China
        
        Strained coz of Japan's lack of transparency in nuclear crisis
        
        International trade + supply-line security
        
        Nuclear radiation = potential problems for trade liberalisation
        
        Some ships refusing to dock at Japanses ports for fear of radiation
        
        Merchant ships encountered obstacles when docking
        
        Several foreign countries a=have banned imports of agricultural goods from area surrounding Fukushima
        
        Recovery could be dealyed in the hardest-hit agricultural areas
        
        Reduction of nuclear generated power = importation of + dependcy on oil
        
        Improved opinion of Japanese military = future expansion possible
  - - - Gov. had wanted to open more doors to trade before EQ
        
        Farm sector was most vulnerable, and with the nuclear crisis+ lack of trade, the rural areas are hit hard
      - Many houses uninsured
      - Has strictest building codes in world
        
        Most damage + dath from tsunami
        
        Most of the evac. centres are in schools that withstood the EQ
      - Gov. provided a widespread tsunami warning alerting people to get to high ground - survivors testify to effectiveness
      - Reg. EQ drills + public info. on disaster evac.
      - Did not plan for the scale of tsunami + affect on nuclear plants
    - - 00,000s military troops deployed in 72 hours
      - Asked for international help - din't for Kobe
      - 1/2 million evacuees in temp. shelters
      - 91 countries + 9 international orgs. offered help, inc. MICs
      - US
        
        $100,000 in immediate aid
        
        S+R assistance
        
        Supported nuclear crisis
      - China provided $4.5 m humanitarian aid (blankets, tents, lights)
      - 63 fire service specialists from UK + US teams of 150 people
    - - Socio-Economic
        
        170,000 people remain in temp. housing
        
        Psycho-social impatcs
        
        Only 1/6 of planned public housing completed
        
        Deadline for rehousing evacuees may be 2020
      - Environmental
        
        New land to be created so towns can be built on higher ground
      - Political
        
        Little infrastructure + rebuilding
        
        arge new tsunami walls being built along the 400km coastline, 35ft high
        
        Towns to be built on higher ground, away from the coastline
        
        New land must be created first
        
        Long process
        
        Monetary + fiscal stimulus has drawn construction capacity to Tokyo, where deals are more lucrative e.g. building stadium for Olympic Games
- - - - Fold mts
      - Thrust falls
      - Many EQs in Himalayas
        
        Collision on Indian +Eurasian plates
        
        V high plateau beyond collision zones
        
        Folding + faulting rock assemblages
        
        No subduction when 2 continents collide
    - - Divergent/constructive boundaries
      - Fault planes
      - Horsts - steep-sided steps (raised blocks)
      - Step-faulting - smallest step formed first
      - Graben - lowered sections between faults e.g. Lake Victoria
      - Escarpments mark fault planes
      - N Am + Eurasian plate drifting apart along Mid-Atlantic Ridge
        
        Effusive
        
        Basaltic
        
        Low gas content
        
        Diverge at 2cm/year
        
        Large Icelandic lake created in rift valley
    - - Tnesional faults
      - Vertical movemnt
      - Footwall
      - Hanging wall
      - Escarpments
        
        tension builds in crust
        
        tension in released = EQs
        
        Movement along fault plane = scarp
        
        Unknown block may be displaced by a few cm/metres
        
        Greater the displacement along the fault, the greater the scarp
    - - Compressional stress
      - Vertical movement
      - One side of fault is pushed up over the other
    - - Severe stresses
      - Horizontal movement - can offset streams
- - - - Don't have the knowledge to get good jobs abroad
    - - Cannot afford to travel
      - 50% unemployed = no resources to migrate
    - - Lies on a plate border, but people chose to live there anyhow
      - Rural-urban migration for jobs
      - More aid available
  - - - Is a strike-slip fault
      - Moves 8cm/year
      - Last EQ in 1770
      - Plates are stuck most of the time = friction = stress = EQ
      - Slipped after 200 years - alot of stress built up
    - - Large EQ in the 1700s was followed by a larger one 19 years later
      - EQs continued along the fault, to the west, to Jamaica
      - Concerns that this will repeat itself i.e. another large EQ closer to P.au.P
    - - Environmental
        
        Hit by hurricane Tomas in November - 35 deaths
        
        Haiti experienced a tornado in September 2010 - killed 5 people + destroyed 6,000 emergency tents
      - Socio-Economic
        
        P. a. P - densely populated city
        
        Some suburbs are *5 more populated than NY
        
        Construction mats. - brittle steel + weak cement mixed with sand
        
        Food insecurity - high prices as much produce is imported from USA
        
        No EQ warnings in place - many died form being trapped inside collapsing buildings
      - Economic One of the poorest nations in the world
        
        Political instability
        
        Lack of natural resources
        
        Economy driven by overseas funding
        
        80% live in poverty
        
        Unprepared for such an event
        
        Debt dependence + instability
        
        Military rule = more debt
        
        2009 - $2.2 bn debt wiped out in debt relief
        
        Many imports from US
        
        Farmers out of work + into slums = severe effects on rice - this was part of a new plan supported by the IMF
        
        4 hurricanes in 2008 = $1bn damage
        
        50% unemployed
      - Poor Governance
        
        For 30 years Haiti was ruled by a brutal dictatorship
        
        Ended in 1986
        
        Country remained politically unstable + corrupt
        
        Political crisis + fraudulent election in Nov. + no president elected
        
        = 38% of the $1.4 bn donated was spent
    - - 12/01/2010
      - 7.0M, 6m deep
        
        Very shallow = most energy went to the surface + little warning
        
        No attenuation of shaking
      - Love + Rayleigh waves were amplified as they travelled across soft sediment = massive damage
        
        The mud + soft seds. amplify the shaking = more damage
      - Epicentre 15km SW of capital
      - Foreshocks, main shocks + after shocks
        
        Aftershocks - people couldn't re-enter buildings to retrieve belongings or search for dead
        
        Aftershocks were v severe
      - Effects
        
        4,700 schools destroyed - no school for year after
        
        3.5 mn people affected
        
        2.3 m displaced
        
        800,000 forced into 450 temp. camps - only 3 with portable water
        
        220,000 deahts
        
        73,000 burried in mass graves to prevent spread of disease
        
        Bodies + injured left lying in street = diseases
        
        $7.8 bn (120% of GDP) - estiamted damage loss
        
        28/29 gov. biuldings destroyed
        
        Port badly damaged - couldn't bring in supplies + blocked main comms. to rest of the city
        
        Reinforced roads terminated at corner of building, a high stress point = many buildings collapsed - 'pancake effect'
        
        Liquefaction at port
    - - Nov. 2010 - cholera in camps
        
        Affected 200,000, killed 4,000
      - Rubble removal was slow and delayed construction
      - 2 weeks later - still chaotic due to low levels of preparedness + destruction of infrastructure
      - Port was severely damaged coz of lateral spreading
      - US coast guard re-opened ports to bring in supplies
      - Roads from the ports were low grade + unable to carry equip. + vehicles needed for reconstruction
      - Relief arriving at city's airport but could not be distributed bc of damaged infrastructure
      - Many US flights were prevented from taking off as there was no space to land + not enough fuel to return
      - US troops at airport accidentally blocked supplies from World Food Programme
      - 6 months later
        
        Formed group of 54 countries and 35 orgs. = $11 bn
        
        Still 500,000 living in camps
      - NGOs had diff. proirities
        
        Rubble removal
        
        Progress in building
        
        1st year - only 1100 new permanent buildings bc of orgs. working independently
      - 1 year later
        
        5% of rubble cleared
        
        450 camps sheltering 800,000 people
        
        Problems w land ownership = conflict + delays in rehousing
      - 2 years later
        
        40% of rubble removed
        
        700 Haitians training in construction
        
        Transitional housing available in camps
        
        Only 50% of $5.5 bn released to projects
        
        Food stock dwindled as prices rose = civil unrest - UN + US troops called in
        
        Shanti towns being constructed from the rubble - but most of rubble cannot be salvaged as it is concrete + steel
- - - - S+R teams
      - Civil Protection Service deployed helicopters
      - Overseas teams available
      - Aid + funding for victims from Italy's restaurants
      - Effective short-term camps + kitchens
      - Respectful mass burial of dead held soon after event
      - ST responses highly effective
    - - Extent of damage difficult to clear and rebuild - no matter development
      - Bureaucracy surrounding planning permission = diff. to rebuild
      - Some sites rebuilt illegally, without seismic controls
      - Involvement of Mafia in reconstruction = funding from gov. is not fully utilised
      - Some local corruption + slow pace of decision-making = pops. still at risk of being crushed