Chapter 6
Learning-any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.
Escape learning- an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation, escape learning typically leads to avoidance learning
ex) leave a party where you were being picked on by peers
Latent Learning- learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs, there is no demonstration of knowledge until a reinforcement is offered, discovered by Edward C. Tolman
ex)A student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not demonstrate the knowledge until an important test is administered.
Avoidance learning- an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
ex) quit going to parties because of your concern of being picked on
Observational learning- occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models, investigated by Albert Bandura.
ex) New drivers having years of experience watching other people drive
Conditioning
Operant Conditioning- form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences,B.F. Skinner, 1930s, behavior is controlled by consequences.
Classical Conditioning- type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus, by Ivan Pavlov in the 1900s
ex) association of a loud sound with the presence of an animal would cause a phobia.
Negative Reinforcement-taking away something unpleasant as a result of the behavior that is acceptable
ex) a teacher exempting a student from the final exam if he has perfect attendance.
Positive Punishment-used to decrease a behavior and is presenting something unpleasant after the behavior.
ex)When a student misbehaves in class, she receives a time out.
Positive Reinforcement- giving something pleasant after a behavior
Negative Punishment-used to decrease a behavior and is removing something pleasant after the behavior.
ex)Kevin trashes his sister’s room and Mom told him he could not go camping with his friends.
Higher order conditioning- a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus ex) while driving, getting anxiety when seeing a police car because of association with a traffic ticket.
Operant Chamber/Skinner box-small enclosure where an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences are controlled, operant responses tend to be voluntary.
Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning are processes that lead to learning. Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response. Also, classical conditioning always works with involuntary responses, while operant conditioning works with voluntary behaviors.
Law of effect-if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened. Edward L Thorndike 1913.
Stimulus Generalization- an organism's responding to stimuli other than the original stimulus used in conditioning.
Stimulus discrimination- an organism's lack of response to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus used in conditioning.
Extinction-gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
In Classical Conditioning: the conditioned stimulus is presented alone until it no longer elicits conditoned response.
In Operant Conditioning: Responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated
In Classical Conditioning: conditioned response is elicited by new stimulus that resembles original conditioned stimulus.
In Operant Conditioning: responding increases in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus.
In Classical Conditioning: Conditioned response is not elicited by the new stimulus that resembles the original conditioned stimulus
In Operant Conditioning: responding does not increase in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus.
Shaping-consists of reinforcement of closer and closer proximations of a desired response. shaping is necessary when an organism does not emit the desired response on its own
Spontaneous recovery- the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus, observed by Pavlov in 1927.
Elicit-to draw forth, involuntary,ex) dog salivation at the sight of food
emit- to send forth, voluntary ex) mouse hitting a pellet that releases food
Trial-in classical conditioning, consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli
Renewal effect-if a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.
Pavlov's experiement- studying the role of saliva in the digestive processes of dogs
Neutral stimulus-initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus- stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning ex)meat powder, which caused salivation
Acquisittion- the initial stage of learning.
In Classical Conditioning-CS and US are paired gradually resulting in CR
In Operant Conditioning- Responding gradually increases because of reinforcement, possibly through shaping
Unconditioned response-Unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning ex)salivation as a response of meat powder
Conditioned stimulus- previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.ex) tone sound
Conditioned response- a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning ex)salivation as a response to bell tone
Reinforcement contingencies- the circumstances that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers- events that are inherently reinforceing because they satisfy biological needs ex) for humans, food, water, warmth, sex
Secondary Reinforcers- events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers ex) for humans, money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise
Cumulative Recorder-creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time ex) roll of paper that moves at a steady rate underneath a movable pen. When there is no responding the pen stays still and draws a straight, horizontal line reflecting the passage of time.
Resistance to extinction- occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
Schedule of reinforcement- determines which occurrences of a specific response result in presentation of a reinforcer
Positive Reinforcement- when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presence of a rewarding system
Negative reinforcement- occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
Fixed Ratio- reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
Variable ratio- reinforcer is given after a variable number of non reinforced responses
Fixed interval- reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has passed
Variable interval- reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has passed