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Wiliam Lowrie (2 Gravity, the figure of the Earth and geodynamics (2.4 THE…

- - - - 2.2.1.1 Potential energy and work
    - - 2.2.2.1 Gravitational potential
      - 2.2.2.2 Acceleration and potential of a distribution of mass
      - 2.2.2.3 Mass and mean density of the Earth
  - - - 2.3.2.1 Centripetal acceleration
      - 2.3.2.2 Centrifugal acceleration and potential
      - 2.3.2.3 Kepler’s third law of planetary motion
      - 2.3.2.4 Verification of the inverse square law of gravitation
    - - 2.3.3.1 Lunar tidal periodicity
      - 2.3.3.2 Tidal effect of the Sun
      - 2.3.3.3 Spring and neap tides
      - 2.3.3.4 Effect of the tides on gravity measurements
      - 2.3.3.5 Bodily Earth-tides
    - - 2.3.4.1 Effect of lunar tidal friction on the length of the day
      - 2.3.4.2 Increase of the Earth–Moon distance
      - 2.3.4.3 The Chandler wobble
      - 2.3.4.4 Precession and nutation of the rotation axis
      - 2.3.4.5 Milankovitch climatic cycles
  - - - 2.4.5.1 Geoid undulations
    - - 2.4.6.1 Satellite laser-ranging
      - 2.4.6.2 Satellite altimetry
      - 2.4.6.3 Satellite-based global positioning systems (GPS)
      - 2.4.6.4 Measurement of gravity and the geoid from orbiting satellites
      - 2.4.6.5 Observation of crustal deformation with satelliteborne radar
      - 2.4.6.6 Very long baseline interferometry
  - - - 2.5.2.1 Free-fall method
      - 2.5.2.2 Rise-and-fall method
    - - 2.5.3.1 Gravity surveying
    - - 2.5.4.1 Latitude correction
      - 2.5.4.2 Terrain corrections
      - 2.5.4.3 Bouguer plate correction
      - 2.5.4.4 Free-air correction
      - 2.5.4.5 Combined elevation correction
    - - 2.5.5.1 Density from seismic velocities
      - 2.5.5.2 Gamma–gamma logging
      - 2.5.5.3 Borehole gravimetry
      - 2.5.5.4 Nettleton’s method for near-surface density
  - - - 2.6.2.1 Visual analysis
      - 2.6.2.2 Polynomial representation
      - 2.6.2.3 Representation by Fourier series
      - 2.6.2.4 Anomaly enhancement and filtering
    - - 2.6.3.1 Uniform sphere: model for a diapir
      - 2.6.3.2 Horizontal line element
      - 2.6.3.3 Horizontal cylinder: model for anticline or syncline
      - 2.6.3.4 Horizontal thin sheet
      - 2.6.3.5 Horizontal slab: model for a vertical fault
      - 2.6.3.6 Iterative modelling
    - - 2.6.4.1 Continental and oceanic gravity anomalies
      - 2.6.4.2 Gravity anomalies across mountain chains
      - 2.6.4.3 Gravity anomalies across an oceanic ridge
      - 2.6.4.4 Gravity anomalies at subduction zones
  - - - 2.7.2.1 The Airy–Heiskanen model
      - 2.7.2.2 The Pratt–Hayford model
      - 2.7.2.3 Vening Meinesz elastic plate model
  - - - 2.8.3.1 Viscoelastic model
    - - 2.8.4.1 Crystal defects
      - 2.8.4.2 Creep mechanisms in the Earth
    - - 2.8.5.1 Lithospheric flexure caused by oceanic islands
      - 2.8.5.2 Lithospheric flexure at a subduction zone
      - 2.8.5.3 Thickness of the lithosphere
    - - 2.8.6.1 Viscosity of the upper mantle
      - 2.8.6.2 Viscosity of the lower mantle
- - - - 3.2.3.1 Longitudinal strain
      - 3.2.3.2 Dilatation
      - 3.2.3.3 Shear strain
    - - 3.2.4.1 Bulk modulus in terms of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
      - 3.2.4.2 Shear modulus in terms of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
      - 3.2.4.3 The Lamé constants
      - 3.2.4.4 Anisotropy
  - - - 3.3.2.1 Compressional waves
      - 3.3.2.2 Transverse waves
      - 3.3.2.3 The solution of the seismic wave equation
      - 3.3.2.4 D’Alembert’s principle
      - 3.3.2.5 The eikonal equation
      - 3.3.2.6 The energy in a seismic disturbance
      - 3.3.2.7 Attenuation of seismic waves
    - - 3.3.3.1 Rayleigh waves (LR )
      - 3.3.3.2 Love waves (LQ)
      - 3.3.3.3 The dispersion of surface waves
    - - 3.3.4.1 Radial oscillations
      - 3.3.4.2 Spheroidal oscillations
      - 3.3.4.3 Toroidal oscillations
      - 3.3.4.4 Comparison with surface waves
  - - - 3.4.2.1 Vertical-motion seismometer
      - 3.4.2.2 Horizontal-motion seismometer
      - 3.4.2.3 Strain seismometer
    - - 3.4.3.1 Effect of instrumental damping
      - 3.4.3.2 Long-period and short-period seismometers
      - 3.4.3.3 Broadband seismometers
    - - 3.4.4.1 Analog recording
      - 3.4.4.2 Digital recording
      - 3.4.4.3 Phases on a seismogram
  - - - 3.5.4.1 Single-couple and double-couple radiation patterns
      - 3.5.4.2 Fault-plane solutions
      - 3.5.4.3 Mechanics of faulting
      - 3.5.4.4 Focal mechanisms at active plate margins
      - 3.5.4.5 Focal mechanisms in continental collisional zones
    - - 3.5.6.1 Earthquake intensity
      - 3.5.6.2 Earthquake magnitude
      - 3.5.6.3 Relationship between magnitude and intensity
    - - 3.5.9.1 Prediction of the location of an earthquake
      - 3.5.9.2 Prediction of the time and size of an earthquake
  - - - 3.6.2.1 The law of reflection using Huygens’ principle
      - 3.6.2.2 The law of refraction using Huygens’ principle
      - 3.6.2.3 Diffraction
    - - 3.6.3.1 The law of reflection using Fermat’s principle
      - 3.6.3.2 The law of refraction using Fermat’s principle
    - - 3.6.4.1 Subcritical and supercritical reflections, and critical refraction
    - - 3.6.5.1 Reflection at a horizontal interface
      - 3.6.5.2 Reflection at an inclined interface
      - 3.6.5.3 Reflection and transmission coefficients
      - 3.6.5.4 Synthetic seismograms
      - 3.6.5.5 Seismic noise
      - 3.6.5.6 Reflection seismic section
    - - 3.6.6.1 Refraction at a horizontal interface
      - 3.6.6.2 Refraction at an inclined interface
      - 3.6.6.3 Refraction with continuous change of velocity with depth
  - - - 3.7.2.1 Seismic rays in a uniformly layered Earth
      - 3.7.2.2 Travel-time curves for P-, PKP- and PKIKP-waves
    - - 3.7.3.1 Inversion of travel-time versus distance curves
      - 3.7.3.2 Forward modelling: polynomial parametrization
    - - 3.7.4.1 Density inside the Earth
      - 3.7.4.2 Gravity and pressure inside the Earth
    - - 3.7.5.1 The crust
      - 3.7.5.2 The upper mantle
      - 3.7.5.3 The lower mantle
      - 3.7.5.4 The core
    - - 3.7.6.1 Travel-time residuals and velocity anomalies
      - 3.7.6.2 Mantle tomography
- - - - 5.2.2.1 The field of a magnetic pole
      - 5.2.2.2 The potential of a magnetic pole
    - - 5.2.6.1 Diamagnetism
      - 5.2.6.2 Paramagnetism
      - 5.2.6.3 Ferromagnetism
      - 5.2.6.4 Antiferromagnetism
      - 5.2.6.5 Parasitic ferromagnetism
      - 5.2.6.6 Ferrimagnetism
    - - 5.2.7.1 Magnetocrystalline anisotropy
      - 5.2.7.2 Magnetostatic (shape) anisotropy
      - 5.2.7.3 Magnetostrictive anisotropy
  - - - 5.3.2.1 The titanomagnetite series
      - 5.3.2.2 The titanohematite series
    - - 5.3.5.1 Superparamagnetism
      - 5.3.5.2 Single domain particles
      - 5.3.5.3 Multidomain particles
    - - 5.3.6.1 Thermoremanent magnetization
      - 5.3.6.2 Sedimentary remanent magnetizations
      - 5.3.6.3 Chemical remanent magnetization
      - 5.3.6.4 Isothermal remanent magnetization
      - 5.3.6.5 Other remanent magnetizations
      - 5.3.7 Environmental magnetism
  - - - 5.4.3.1 The Van Allen radiation belts
      - 5.4.3.2 The ionosphere
      - 5.4.3.3 Diurnal variation and magnetic storms
    - - 5.4.4.1 The dipole field
      - 5.4.4.2 The non-dipole field
    - - 5.4.5.1 Secular variation of the dipole field
      - 5.4.5.2 Secular variation of the non-dipole field
    - - 5.4.6.1 Magnetostatic and electromagnetic models
      - 5.4.6.2 The geomagnetic dynamo
      - 5.4.6.3 Computer simulation of the geodynamo
    - - 5.4.7.1 Magnetic field of the Sun
      - 5.4.7.2 Lunar magnetism
      - 5.4.7.3 Extra-terrestrial magnetic exploration
      - 5.4.7.4 The magnetic fields of the planets
  - - - 5.5.2.1 The flux-gate magnetometer
      - 5.5.2.2 The proton-precession magnetometer
      - 5.5.2.3 The absorption-cell magnetometer
    - - 5.5.3.1 Measurement methods
      - 5.5.3.2 Magnetic gradiometers
      - 5.5.3.3 The survey pattern
    - - 5.5.5.1 Magnetic anomaly of a surface distribution of magnetic poles
      - 5.5.5.2 Magnetic anomaly of a vertical dike
      - 5.5.5.3 Magnetic anomaly of an inclined magnetization
      - 5.5.5.4 Magnetic anomalies of simple geometric bodies
      - 5.5.5.5 Effect of block width on anomaly shape
      - 5.5.6 Oceanic magnetic anomalies
  - - - 5.6.2.1 Archeomagnetic records of secular variation
      - 5.6.2.2 The axial geocentric dipole hypothesis
    - - 5.6.3.1 Measurement of remanent magnetization
      - 5.6.3.2 Stepwise progressive demagnetization
      - 5.6.3.3 Analysis of magnetization components
      - 5.6.3.4 Statistical analysis of paleomagnetic directions
      - 5.6.3.5 Field tests of magnetization stability
    - - 5.6.4.1 Location of the virtual geomagnetic pole
      - 5.6.4.2 Apparent polar wander paths
      - 5.6.4.3 Paleogeographic reconstructions using APW paths
      - 5.6.4.4 Paleomagnetism and continental drift
  - - - 5.7.1.1 Geomagnetic polarity transitions
      - 5.7.1.2 Geomagnetic polarity intervals
    - - 5.7.3.1 Marine magnetic anomalies
      - 5.7.3.2 Uniformity of sea-floor spreading
      - 5.7.3.3 The marine record of geomagnetic polarity history
    - - 5.7.4.1 Magnetostratigraphic calibration of polarity sequences
      - 5.7.4.2 Reconstruction of plate tectonic motions
- - - - 4.1.1.1 The clock
      - 4.1.1.2 Units of time
      - 4.1.1.3 The geological timescale
    - - 4.1.2.1 Cooling of the Sun
      - 4.1.2.2 Cooling of the Earth
      - 4.1.2.3 Increase of the Earth–Moon separation
      - 4.1.2.4 Oceanic salinity
      - 4.1.2.5 Sedimentary accumulation
    - - 4.1.3.1 Radioactive decay
    - - 4.1.4.1 Radioactive carbon
      - 4.1.4.2 The mass spectrometer
      - 4.1.4.3 Rubidium–strontium
      - 4.1.4.4 Potassium–argon
      - 4.1.4.5 Argon–argon
      - 4.1.4.6 Uranium–lead: the concordia–discordia diagram
  - - - 4.2.3.1 The adiabatic temperature gradient
      - 4.2.3.2 The melting point gradient
    - - 4.2.4.1 Conduction
      - 4.2.4.2 Convection
      - 4.2.4.3 Radiation
    - - 4.2.5.1 Radioactive heat production
    - - 4.2.6.1 Penetration of external heat into the Earth
      - 4.2.6.2 Cooling of the oceanic lithosphere
    - - 4.2.7.1 Reconstruction of ground surface temperature changes from borehole temperature profiles
      - 4.2.7.2 Variation of continental heat flow with age
      - 4.2.7.3 Heat transfer through porous crustal rocks
    - - 4.2.8.1 Variation of oceanic heat flow and depth with lithospheric age
      - 4.2.8.2 Global heat flow
      - 4.2.8.3 Models for the cooling of oceanic lithosphere
      - 4.2.8.4 Thermal structure of oceanic lithosphere
      - 4.2.8.5 Heat flow at subduction zones
    - - 4.2.9.1 Thermal convection
      - 4.2.9.2 Convection at high Rayleigh numbers
      - 4.2.9.3 Models of mantle convection
      - 4.2.9.4 Mantle plumes
  - - - 4.3.2.1 Electric field and potential
      - 4.3.2.2 Ohm’s law
      - 4.3.2.3 Types of electrical conduction
    - - 4.3.3.1 Electrical surveying
    - - 4.3.4.1 Self-potential (spontaneous potential)
      - 4.3.4.2 SP surveying
      - 4.3.4.3 Telluric currents
    - - 4.3.5.1 Potential of a single electrode
      - 4.3.5.2 The general four-electrode method
      - 4.3.5.3 Special electrode configurations
      - 4.3.5.4 Current distribution
      - 4.3.5.5 Apparent resistivity
      - 4.3.5.6 Vertical electrical sounding
      - 4.3.5.7 Induced polarization
      - 4.3.5.8 Electrical resistivity tomography
    - - 4.3.6.1 Electromagnetic induction
      - 4.3.6.2 EM induction surveying
      - 4.3.6.3 Magnetotelluric sounding
      - 4.3.6.4 Ground-penetrating radar
- - - - 1.1.3.1 Bode’s law
      - 1.1.3.2 The terrestrial planets and the Moon
      - 1.1.3.3 The great planets
      - 1.1.3.4 Pluto and the outer solar system
      - 1.1.3.5 Angular momentum
  - - - 1.2.2.1 Pangaea
      - 1.2.2.2 Computer-assisted reconstructions
      - 1.2.2.3 Paleomagnetism and continental drift
    - - 1.2.3.1 Lithospheric plates
    - - 1.2.5.1 The Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
      - 1.2.5.2 Rates of sea-floor spreading
    - - 1.2.6.1 Constructive margins
      - 1.2.6.2 Destructive margins
      - 1.2.6.3 Conservative margins
    - - 1.2.7.1 Stability of triple junctions
      - 1.2.7.2 Evolution of triple junctions in the northeast Pacific
    - - 1.2.9.1 Euler poles of rotation
      - 1.2.9.2 Absolute plate motions
    - - 1.2.10.1 Forces acting on lithospheric plates
      - 1.2.10.2 Relative magnitudes of forces driving plate motions