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Chapters 51, 52 & 53 (chapter 53 Population Ecology (Human…

- - - - Location:
        
        This biome occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents, and its many names reflect its far-flung distribution: chaparral in North America, matorral in Spain and Chile, garigue and maquis in southern France, and fynbos in South Africa.
        
        Percipitation:
        
        Precipitation is highly seasonal, with rainy winters and dry summers. Annual precipitation generally falls within the range of 30-50 cm.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Fall, winter, and spring are cool, with average temperatures in the range of 10–12°C. Average summer temperature can reach 30°C, and daytime maximum temperature can exceed 40°C.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        The veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of Russia, and the plains and praires of central North America are examples.
        
        Percipitation:
        
        Precipitation is often highly seasonal, with relatively dry winter and wet summers. Annual precipitation generally averages between 30 and 100 cm. Periodic drought is common.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Winters are generally cold, with average temperatures falling below –10°C. Summers, with average temperatures often approaching 30°C, are hot
        
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    - - Location:
        
        Occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions.
        
        Precipitation:
        
        Seasonal rainfall averages 30-5- cm per year. The dry season can last up to eight or nine months.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Warm year-round, averaging 24-29 °C, but with somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        Extending in a broad band across northern North America and Eurasia to the edge the edge of the arctic tundra, the northern coniferous forest, or taiga, is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth.
        
        Percipitation:
        
        Annual precipitation generally ranges from 30 to 70 cm, and periodic droughts are common. However, some coastal coniferous forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest are temperate rain forests that may receive over 300 cm of annual precipitation.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Winters are usually cold; summers may be hot. Some areas of coniferous forest in Siberia typically range in temperature from -50 °C in winter to over 20°C in summer.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        30° north and south
        latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents.
        
        Precipitation:
        
        Low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Maximum air temperature in hot deserts may exceed 50°C; in cold deserts air temperature may fall below –30°C.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        Temperate broadleaf forest is found mainly at midlatitudes in the North Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
        
        Percipitation:
        
        Precipitation can average from about 70 to over 200 cm annually. Significant amounts fall during all seasons, including summer rain and , in some forests, winter snow.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Winter temperatures average 0°C. Summers, with temperatures up to 35°C, are hot and humid.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        Equatorial
        and subequatorial regions
        
        Precipitation:
        
        In tropical
        rain forests, rainfall is
        relatively constant, about
        200–400 cm annually. In tropical
        dry forests, precipitation is highly seasonal,
        about 150–200 cm annually, with a six- to
        seven-month dry season.
        
        Temperature:
        
        High year-round, averaging 25–29°C
        with little seasonal variation.
        
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    - - Location:
        
        Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earth's land surface. High winds and low temperatures produce similar plant communities, called alpine tundra, on very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics.
        
        Precipitation:
        
        Precipitation averages from 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra.
        
        Temperature:
        
        Winters are cold, with averages in some areas below -30°C. Summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C.
        
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  - - - Streams and Rivers
        
        Physical Enivornment:
        
        The most prominent physical characteristic of steams and rivers is the speed and volume of their flow. Headwaters streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent, and swift. Farther downstream, where numerous tributaries may have joined, forming a river, the water is generally warmer and more turbid because of suspened sediment. Streams and rivers are stratified into vertical zones.
        
        Chemical Enivornment:
        
        The salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers increase from the headwaters to the mouth. Headwaters generally rich in oxygen. Downstream water may also contain substantial oxygen, except where there has been organic matter in rivers consists of dissolved or highly fragmented material that is carried by the current from forested streams.
      - Estuaries
        
        Physical Environment:
        
        An estuary is a transition area between river and sea. Seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during the falling tide. Often, higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel and mixes little with the lower-density river water at the surface.
        
        Chemical Environment:
        
        Salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of fresh water to that of seawater. Salinity also varies with the rise and fall of the tides. Nutrients from the river make estuaries, like wetlands, among the most productive biomes.
      - Intertidal Zones
        
        Physical Environment:
        
        An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shore. Upper zones experience longer exposures to air and greater variations in temperature and salinity. Changes in physical conditions from the upper to lower interidal zones limit the distributions of many organisms to particular strata.
        
        Chemical Environment:
        
        Oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are renewed with each turn of the tides. Geologic Features The substrates of intertidal zones, which are generally either rocky or sandy, select for particular behavior and anatomy among intertidal organisms. The configuration of bays or coastlines influences the magnitude of tides and the relative exposure of intertidal organisms to wave action.
      - Oceanic Pelagic Zone
        
        Physical Environment:
        
        The oceanic pelagic zone is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents. Because of higher water clarity, the photic zone extends to greater depths than in coastal marine waters.
        
        Chemical Environment:
        
        Oxygen levels are generally high. Nutrient concentrations are generally lower than coastal waters. Because they are thermally stratified year-round, some tropical areas of the oceanic pelagic zone have lower nutrient concentrations than temperate oceans. Turnover between fall and spring renews nutrients in the photic zones of temperate and high-latitude ocean areas.
      - Coral Reefs
        
        Physical Environment:
        
        Coral reefs are formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals. Shallow reef-building corals live in the photic zone of relatively stable tropical marine environments with high water clarity, primary near islands and along the edge of some continents. They are sensitive to temperatures below about about 18–20°C and above 30°C. Deep-sea coral reefs, found between 200 and 1,500 m deep, are less known than their shallow counterparts but harbor as much diversity as many shallow reefs do.
        
        Chemical Environment:
        
        Corals require high oxygen levels and are excluded by high inputs of fresh water and nutrients.
      - Marine Benthic Zone
        
        Physical Environment:
        
        The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal, or nertic, zone and the offshore, pelagic zone Except for shallow, near-coastal areas, the marine
        benthic zone receives no sunlight. Water temperature declines with depth, while pressure increases. As a result, organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal, zone are adapted to continuous cold (about 3°C) and very high water pressure.
        
        Chemical Environment:
        
        Except in areas of organic enrichment, oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life.
        .
  - - - An area having relatively little precipitation due to the effect of a topographic barrier, especially a mountain range, that causes the prevailing winds to lose their moisture on the windward side, causing the leeward side to be dry
        
        Prevailing winds carry air toward the mountain range. As the air rises up over a mountain range, the air cools, water vapor condenses, and clouds form. On this side of the mountains, called the windward side, precipitation falls in the form of rain.
    - - The current Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun. But this tilt changes. During a cycle that averages about 40,000 years, the tilt of the axis varies between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees.
        
        The Northern Hemisphere will be cold while the Southern Hemisphere will be hot.
        
        June 21st (summer solstice)/ 23.5 degrees latitude is closest
        
        Winter solstice, Dec 21. 23.5 degrees south of the equator
        
        March (equinox) and September (equinox)
    - - The rotation of the Earth causes an interesting phenomena on free moving objects on the Earth.
        
        Objects in the Northern Hemisphere are deflected to the right, while objects in the Southern Hemisphere are deflected to the left.
        
        The coriolis effect thus tries to force winds to shift towards the right or left.
- - - - A type of behavior that does not have to be learned or practiced.
        
        Example
        
        A baby given anything in their mouth will automatically suck on it.
      - Imprinting
        
        Rapid learning that occurs during a brief receptive period of time.
      - Fixed Action Pattern
        
        A behavior that is triggered by a stimulus but also is fixed.
        
        Example
        
        When a sickle back fish sees red it will attack
    - - A type of behavior that develops during an animals lifetime.
        
        Observational Learning
        
        Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others.
      - Trail & Error (Operant Conditioning)
        
        A behavior in which the animal experiments or investigates a behavior of another.
    - - A form of classical conditioning.
        
        Insight
        
        A behavior in which an animal combines bits of information that was learned together.
        
        Habituation
        
        A type of behavior in which an animal gets used to things that are seen all the time and paying attention to something new.