Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

(Animal Behavior (Includes (Imprinting (Includes (Learning (The…

- - - - Ethology
        
        is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments
      - Proximate causation
        
        "How" explanations
        
        Environmental stimuli trigger a behavior
        
        Genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying a behavior
      - Ultimate causation
        
        "Why" explanation
        
        Evolutionary significance of a behavior
      - Behavior ecology
        
        the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior
  - - - Regular unvarying patterns
      - A sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable
      - Carried to completion
      - Triggered by an external cue
        
        Sign stimulus
        
        example
        
        In male stickleback fish
        
        The stimulus for attack behavior is the red underside of an intruder
    - - Includes
        
        Learning
        
        The modification of behavior
        
        Based on specific experiences
        
        Innate components
      - Generally irreversible
      - Acquires specific behavior with stimulus
      - Experienced during critical period
      - Distinguished from other learning by Sensitive Period
        
        Sensitive period
        
        A limited developmental phase
        
        The only time when certain behaviors can be learned
      - Example
        
        Young geese following their mother
    - - More complex modification of behavior
      - Based on experience
        
        With the spatial structure of the environment
      - Example
        
        Niko Tinbergen
        
        Showed how digger wasps use landmarks to find nest entrances
      - Cognitive maps
        
        An internal representation of spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings
        
        Example
        
        Clark’s nutcrackers can find food hidden in caches located halfway between particular landmarks
        
        Cognitive
        
        A process of knowing include
        
        Awareness
        
        Reasoning
        
        Recollection
        
        Judgment
        
        Example
        
        Honeybees can distinguish “same” from “different”
    - - Animals associate one feature of their environment with another
      - Example
        
        A white-footed mouse will avoid eating caterpillars with specific colors after a bad experience with a distasteful monarch butterfly caterpillar
      - Occurs when two or more events are connected
      - For instance
        
        Classical conditioning
        
        An arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment
        
        Example
        
        A dog repeatedly hears a bell before being fed
        
        Will salivate in anticipation at the bell’s sound
        
        Occurs when there is a substitute stimulus
        
        Operant conditioning
        
        An animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment
        
        Trial and error learning
        
        Can result in extinction
        
        Example
        
        A rat feed after pushing a lever
        
        1 more item...
        
        A predator may learn to avoid a specific type of prey associated
        
        1 more item...
    - - New situation
    - - Innate behavior
        
        Developmentally fixed
        
        Under strong genetic influence
      - Inherited
    - - A simple form of learning
      - Involves loss of responsiveness to stimuli
        
        Convey little
        
        No information
        
        Example
        
        Birds are not followed by an actual attack
        
        Birds will stop responding to alarm calls from their species
    - - Some animals learn to solve problems by observing other individual
        
        Example
        
        Young chimpanzees learn to crack palm nuts with stones by copying older chimpanzees
        
        Problem solving
        
        The process of devising a strategy to overcome an obstacle
        
        Example
        
        Chimpanzees can stack boxes in order to reach suspended food
  - - - Kinesis
        
        A simple change in activity
        
        Turning rate in response to a stimulus
        
        Undirected change in speed
        
        Example
        
        Sow bugs become more active in dry areas
        
        Less active in humid areas
      - Migration
        
        Long distance
        
        Animals can orient themselves using
        
        The position of the sun and circadian clock
        
        An internal 24 hrs clock
        
        An integral part of their nervous system
        
        The position of the North Star
        
        The Earth’s magnetic field
      - Taxis
        
        More or less automatic
        
        Directed movement toward or away from a stimuli
        
        Example
        
        Many stream fish exhibit a positive taxis
        
        Automatically swim in an upstream direction
        
        Taxis prevent from being swept away
        
        Keeps facing the direction from which food will come
  - - - Migration
      - Reproduction
    - - Example
        
        Courtship in fiddler carbs
        
        Occurs during the new and full moon
  - - - Selflessness
      - Reduce individual fitness but increase the fitness of others
      - Example
        
        under threat from a predator, an individual Belding's ground squirrel will make an alarm call to warn others
        
        Even though calling increases the chances that the caller is killed
      - Inclusive fitness
        
        the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes
        
        By producing offspring and helping close relatives produce offspring
      - William Hamiton
        
        Proposed a quantitative measure for predicting when natural selection would favor altruistic acts among related individual
        
        3 key variables in an altruistic act
        
        Benefit to the recipient B
        
        Cost to the altruist C
        
        Coefficient of relatedness
        
        "r"
        
        The fraction of genes that one average are shared
        
        Hamiton's rule
        
        rB > C
        
        Kin selection
        
        the natural selection
        
        favors this kind of altruistic behavior
        
        by enhancing reproductive success of relative
      - Reciprocal altruism
        
        unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
        
        limited to species with stable social groups
        
        individuals meet repeatedly
        
        cheaters are punished
        
        explain altruism between unrelated individual in humans
    - - learning through the observation of others
      - forms the roots of culture
        
        Culture
        
        system of information transfer through observation
        
        teaching that influences behavior of individuals in a population
        
        alter behavior and influence the fitness of individuals
    - - Male competition for males
        
        an often ritualized contest
        
        determines which competitor gains access to a resource
    - - Help behavioral ecologists to identify the contribution of environment to an animal’s behavior
      - Places the young from one species in the care of adults from another species
      - Developed some behaviors
        
        Consistent with their foster parents
      - Example
        
        Uncovered an influence of social environment on aggressive and parental behavior
        
        Studies of California mice
        
        White-footed mice
    - - Researchers to compare the relative influences
        
        Genetics
        
        A master regulatory gene can control many behavior
        
        Example
        
        A single gene controls many behaviors of the male fruit fly courtship ritual
        
        Multiple independent genes can contribute to a single behavior
        
        Example
        
        In green lacewings, the courtship song is unique to each species
        
        Multiple independent genes govern different components of the courtship song
        
        Environment on behavior
  - - - Enhance the efficiency of feeding
    - - Food-obtaining behavior
      - include
        
        Herds flocks schools
        
        Allow vigilance
        
        Provide concealment
        
        images
        
        Find foods
        
        Packs
        
        Attack prey
    - - In Drosophila melanogaster
        
        Variation in a gene dictates foraging behavior in the larvae
        
        Larvae with one allele travel farther while foraging than larvae with the other allele
        
        Larvae in high-density populations benefit from foraging farther for food
        
        While larvae in low-density populations benefit from short-distance foraging
      - Natural selection favors different foraging behavior depending on the density of the population
    - - Views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition
        
        Costs of obtaining food
      - The costs of obtaining food include energy expenditure
        
        The risk of being eaten while foraging
      - Natural selection should favor foraging behavior
        
        Minimizes the costs
        
        Maximizes the benefits
      - Example
        
        Demonstrated by the Northwestern crow
        
        A crow will drop a whelk from a height to break its shell and feed on the soft parts
        
        The crow faces a trade-off between the height from which it drops the whelk
        
        The number of times it must drop the whelk
    - - Risk of predication affects foraging behavior
      - Example
        
        Mule deer are more likely to feed in open forested areas
        
        They are less likely to be killed by mountain lions
  - - - Sounds
    - - Aggression
    - - Pheromones
        
        Communicate through odors emit chemical substances
        
        Effective at very low concentrations
        
        Releaser pheromones
        
        Example
        
        A minnow or catfish is injured
        
        An alarm substance in the fish’s skin disperses in the water
        
        Inducing a fright response among fish in the area
    - - Honeybees
        
        Complex communication with symbolic language
        
        Returning from the field performs a dance to communicate information about the position of a food source
  - - - Seeking or attracting mates
      - Choosing among potential mates
      - Competing for mates
    - - Sexual selection
    - - no strong pair-bond or lasting relationship
    - - one male mates with one female
        
        Males and females with monogamous mating systems have similar external morphologies
    - - an individual of one sex mates with several individuals of the other sex
      - Sexually dimorphic
        
        males and females have different external morphologies
      - Can be either polygynous or polyandrous
        
        Polygyny
        
        one male mates with many females
        
        males are usually more showy and larger than the females
        
        Polyandry
        
        one female mates with many males
        
        Females are more showy than the males
        
        rare mating system
- - - - a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
      - described by their boundaries and size
    - - the number of individuals per unit area or volume
      - mark-recapture method
        
        Marked individuals are given time to mix back into the population
        
        N = sn / x
        
        Scientists capture a second sample of individuals (n)
        
        note how many of them are marked (x)
        
        Scientists capture, tag, and release a random sample of individuals (s) in a population
        
        Population size (N)
      - the result of an interplay between processes that add individuals to a population and those that remove individuals
        
        Immigration
        
        the influx of new individuals from other areas
        
        Emigration
        
        the movement of individuals out of a population
    - - the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
      - Environmental and social factors influence the spacing of individuals in a population
        
        clumped dispersion
        
        individuals aggregate in patches
        
        influenced by resource availability and behavior
        
        uniform dispersion
        
        one in which individuals are evenly distributed
        
        influenced by social interactions
        
        territoriality
        
        the defense of a bounded space against other individuals
        
        random dispersion
        
        the position of each individual is independent of other individuals
        
        occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsion
    - - the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time
      - particular interest to demographers
        
        Death rates
        
        birth rates
      - Life Tables
        
        an age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population
        
        cohort
        
        a group of individuals of the same age
        
        Survivorship Curves
        
        a graphic way of representing the data in a life table
        
        Belding’s ground squirrels shows a relatively constant death rate
        
        classified into three general types
        
        Type I
        
        low death rates during early
        
        middle life and an increase in death rates among older age groups
        
        Type II
        
        a constant death rate over the organism’s life span
        
        Type III
        
        high death rates for the young
        
        a lower death rate for survivors
      - Reproductive Rates
        
        fertility schedule
        
        an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population
        
        describes the reproductive patterns of a population
  - - - birth rate and death rate do not change with population density
    - - birth rates fall and death rates rise with population density
      - negative feedback that regulates population growth
      - affected by
        
        competition for resources
        
        In crowded populations
        
        increasing population density intensifies competition for resources
        
        results in a lower birth rate
        
        Toxic Wastes
        
        contribute to density-dependent regulation of population size
        
        Predation
        
        As a prey population builds up
        
        predators may feed preferentially on that species
        
        Intrinsic Factors
        
        intrinsic (physiological) factors appear to regulate population size
        
        Territoriality
        
        In many vertebrates and some invertebrates
        
        competition for territory may limit density
        
        Disease
        
        Population density can influence the health
        
        survival of organisms
        
        In dense populations
        
        pathogens can spread more rapidly
    - - interactions between biotic and abiotic factors
      - cause variation in population size
    - - groups of populations linked by immigration and emigration
  - - - increased relatively slowly until about 1650
      - more than 6.8 billion people
      - the rate of growth began to slow during the 1960s
      - Most of the current global population growth
        
        concentrated in developing countries
    - - To maintain population stability
        
        a regional human population can exist in one of two configurations
        
        Zero population growth = High birth rate – High death rate
        
        Zero population growth =Low birth rate – Low death rate
      - demographic transition
        
        the move from the first state to the second state
        
        associated with an increase in the quality of health care
        
        improved access to education, especially for women
        
        Age Structure
        
        is the relative number of individuals at each age
        
        while some nation's populations are growing rapidly
        
        those of others are stable or declining in size
        
        Infant mortality and life expectancy at birth vary greatly among developed and developing countries
    - - Population ecologists predict a global population of 7.8-10.8 billion people in 2050
      - The carrying capacity of Earth for humans is uncertain
      - The average estimate is 10–15 billion
    - - ecological footprint
        
        summarizes the aggregate land and water area needed to sustain the people of a nation
      - Countries vary greatly in footprint size and available ecological capacity
      - Our carrying capacity could potentially be limited by food, space, nonrenewable resources, or buildup of wastes
      - we can regulate our population growth through social changes
  - - - Change in population size = Births + Immigrants entering population - Deaths - Emigrants leaving population
      - 4 basic factors that affect population size
        
        Birth rate
        
        Death rate
        
        Immigration
        
        Emigration
      - The population growth rate can be expressed mathematically
        
        N is the change in population size
        
        t is the time interval
        
        B is the number of births
        
        D is the number of deaths
      - B = bN
        
        D = mN
        
        b is the annual per capita birth rate
        
        m (for mortality) is the per capita death rate
        
        N is population size
      - The per capita rate of increase (r)
        
        r = b - m
      - Zero population growth (ZPG)
        
        occurs when the birth rate equals the death rate
        
        r = 0
    - - population increase under idealized conditions
      - the rate of increase is at its maximum, denoted as r-max
      - dN / dt = r=max * N
      - growth results in a J-shaped curve
        
        characterizes some rebounding populations
      - cannot be sustained for long in any population
    - - A more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying capacity
        
        Carrying capacity (K)
        
        the maximum population size the environment can support
        
        varies with the abundance of limiting resources
        
        logistic population growth
        
        the per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is reached
        
        starts with the exponential model
        
        adds an expression
        
        that reduces per capita rate of increase as N approaches K
        
        produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve
        
        grown in a constant environment lacking predators and competitors
  - - - comprises the traits that affect its schedule of reproduction and survival
        
        The age at which reproduction begins
        
        How often the organism reproduces
        
        How many offspring are produced during each reproductive cycle
      - evolutionary outcomes reflected
        
        development
        
        physiology
        
        behavior of an organism
        
        Evolution and Life History Diversity
        
        Species that exhibit semelparity, or big-bang reproduction, reproduce once and die
        
        Species that exhibit iteroparity, or repeated reproduction, produce offspring repeatedly
        
        stimulated alternative hypotheses of life history evolution
        
        oversimplifications
        
        K-selection
        
        density-dependent selection
        
        selects for life history traits
        
        sensitive to population density
        
        r-selection
        
        density-independent selection
        
        selects for life history traits
        
        maximize reproduction
      - Trade-offs
        
        Organisms have finite resources
        
        lead to trade-offs between survival and reproduction
        
        Example
        
        a trade-off between survival and paternal care in European kestrels
        
        Some plants produce a large number of small seeds
        
        ensuring that at least some of them will grow and eventually reproduce
        
        plants produce a moderate number of large seeds
        
        provide a large store of energy
        
        help seedlings become established
- - - - Levels of the hierachy
        
        Global ecology
        
        Landscape ecology
        
        Ecosystem ecology
        
        Community ecology
        
        Population ecology
        
        3 more items...
        
        Synecology
        
        interactions between species in communities on many spatial and temporal scales
        
        the distribution, structure, abundance, demography, and interactions between coexisting populations.
        
        interactions within an ecosystem framework
        
        the integrated study of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of ecosystems
        
        relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems
        
        the interactions among the Earth's ecosystems, land, atmosphere and oceans
  - - - The long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area constitute
      - Four major abiotic components of climate
        
        Temperature
        
        Precipitation
        
        sunlight
        
        wind
    - - Macroclimate
        
        consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level
      - Microclimate
        
        consists of very fine patterns
        
        encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen log
    - - determined largely by solar energy and the planet’s movement in space
        
        The warming effect of the sun causes temperature variations
        
        causes latitudinal variations in climate
        
        Latitudinal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
        
        The angle at which sunlight hits Earth affects its intensity
        
        the amount of heat and light per unit of surface area
        
        The intensity of sunlight is strongest in the tropics
        
        between 23.5° north latitude and 23.5° south latitude
        
        drive evaporation and the circulation of air and water
  - - - major life zones
      - characterized by
        
        vegetation type
        
        terrestrial biomes
        
        Tropical forest
        
        distributed over equatorial and subequatorial regions across the globe
        
        Precepitation
        
        Tropical rain forests
        
        1 more item...
        
        tropical dry forest
        
        1 more item...
        
        temperature
        
        25-29*C
        
        broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant
        
        Desert
        
        near 30* north and south latitude
        
        low and highly variable
        
        rainfall less than 30 cm per year
        
        hot desert 50*C
        
        cold desert -30*C
        
        low, widely scattered vegelation
        
        succulents
        
        1 more item...
        
        Savanna
        
        equatorial and subequatorial regions
        
        rainfall 30-59 cm per year
        
        8-9 months dry season
        
        24-29*C
        
        scattered trees
        
        grass and forbs
        
        Chaparral
        
        midlatitude coastal region
        
        rainy winters and dry summers
        
        rainfall 30-50 cm per year
        
        fall, winter, and spring are cool
        
        10-12*C
        
        1 more item...
        
        shrubs and small trees
        
        grass and herb
        
        Temperate grassland
        
        In North America we call temperate grasslands prairies
        
        In Eurasia temperate grasslands are known as steppes
        
        1 more item...
        
        dry winter and wet summers
        
        rainfall 30-100 cm per year
        
        winter are cold with -10*C
        
        summer hot with 30*C
        
        grass and forbs
        
        North Coniferous forest
        
        broad band across northern
        
        largest terrestrial biome
        
        30-70 cm annual
        
        winter cold with -50*C
        
        summers hot with 20*C
        
        cone-bearing trees
        
        Temperate broad-leaf forest
        
        midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
        
        70 to over 200 cm annually
        
        winter 0*C
        
        summer 35*C
        
        deciduous trees
        
        Tundra
        
        cover expansive areas of the Arctic
        
        20-60 cm annually
        
        -30C to 10C
        
        herbaceous, grass, mosses, forbs,...
        
        physical environment
        
        aquatic biomes
        
        Diverse
        
        Dynamic systems
        
        cover most of Earth
        
        the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
        
        less latitudinal variation than terrestrial biomes
        
        Zonation
        
        stratified into zones or layers
        
        light penetration
        
        3 more items...
        
        temperature
        
        2 more items...
        
        depth
        
        2 more items...
        
        Detritus
        
        dead organic matter
        
        1 more item...
        
        Intertidal Zones
        
        periodically submerged and exposed by the tides
        
        Intertidal organisms
        
        2 more items...
        
        Oxygen and nutrient levels are high
        
        Substrate varies from rocky to sandy
        
        Oceanic Pelagic Zone
        
        constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
        
        Oxygen levels are high
        
        Turnover in temperate oceans renews nutrients in the photic zones
        
        1 more item...
        
        Marine Benthic Zone
        
        consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal
        
        neritic
        
        1 more item...
        
        Organisms in the very deep
        
        adapted to continuous cold
        
        1 more item...
        
        Substrate is mainly soft sediments
        
        1 more item...
        
        Coral Reefs
        
        formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals (cnidarians)
        
        require high oxygen concentrations
        
        a solid substrate for attachment
        
        progresses from a fringing reef to a barrier reef to a coral atoll
      - affected by average temperature and precipitation
        
        the pattern of temperature and precipitation through the year
    - - temperature and precipitation in a region