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Chapter 51-53 (Animal Behavior (Innate (Does not have to be learned or…

- - - - Seasonality
        
        Earth's titled axis of rotation and passing around the sun can cause strong seasonal cycles in middle to high latitudes
      - Latitudinal Variation in Sunlight Intensity
        
        Because sunlight strikes the tropics then more heat and light per unit of surface area are delivered there
        
        At higher latitudes, sunlight strikes Earth at an oblique angle
      - Global Air Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
        
        High temperatures in the tropics evaporate water from Earth's surface and cause warm, wet air masses to rise and flow toward the poles
        
        The rising air masses cool and release much of their water content creating abundant precipitation in tropical regions
        
        At latitudes around 60 degrees north and south, the air masses again rise and release abundant precipitation
  - - - Location
        
        Equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Precipitation
        
        Rain forests - rainfall occurs constant at about 200-400 cm annually
        
        Dry forests - high seasonal precipitation about 150-200 cm annually, with 6/7 month dry season
      - Temperature
        
        High year-round with 25-29 degrees C
      - Dominant Organisms
        
        Plants
        
        Tropical Rain Forests
        
        Layers in rain forests: trees above the closed canopy, the canopy trees, 1/2 layers of subcanopy trees, and shrugs/herbs
        
        Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant
        
        Orchids/bromeliads are abundant
        
        Tropical Dry Forests
        
        Less trees than rain forests
        
        Broadleaf evergreen trees that drop in the dry season
        
        Thorny shrubs and succulent plants are common
        
        Animals
        
        Insects, spiders, amphibians, birds, and other arthropods
        
        Most diverse than in other terrestrial biomes
    - - Location
        
        In bands near 30 degrees north and south latitude
        
        Latitudes in the interior of continents ---- Gobi Desert
      - Precipitation
        
        Low and highly viable
        
        Less than 30 cm per year
      - Temperature
        
        Varies seasonally and daily
        
        Max. may exceed 50C
        
        Lows in -30C
      - Plants
        
        Low, widely scattered vegetation
        
        Succulents, cacti, euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, herbs
        
        Must adapt to heat and dessication, water storage, reduced leaf surface areas
        
        Contains spines and chemicals for defenses
        
        CAM photosynthesis in most
      - Animals
        
        Snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds, rodents
        
        Nocturnal animals
        
        *water conservation is a common adaption
    - - Location
        
        Equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Precipitation
        
        Seasonal rainfall
        
        30-50 cm per year
        
        Dry season can last up to 8 or 9 months
      - Temperature
        
        Warm year-round with 24-29C
      - Plants
        
        Scattered trees
        
        Often thorny with small leaves
        
        Plants must be fire-adapted and tolerant of drought
        
        Grasses, small nonwoody plants, forbs
      - Animals
        
        Large-plant eating mammals
        
        Wildbeests, zebras, lions, hyenas
        
        Termites/other insects
    - - Location
        
        Midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
      - Precipitation
        
        Highly seasonal
        
        Rainy winters
        
        Dry summers
      - Plants
        
        Dominated by shrubs and small trees
        
        Some shrubs produce seeds that will germinate only after a hot fire
        
        Food reserves stored in their fire-resistant roots
        
        Many kinds of grasses and herbs
        
        Must adapt to drought and reduce water loss
      - Animals
        
        Browsers such as deer and goats
        
        Amphibians, birds, other reptiles, and insects
      - Temperature
        
        Fall, winter, and spring have temperatures of 10-12C
        
        Average summer temperature can reach 30C
        
        Max. temperature can exceed 40C
    - - Location
        
        Central North America
        
        Veldts of S. Africa
        
        Puszta of Hungary
        
        Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay
        
        Steppes of Russia
      - Precipitation
        
        Highly seasonal
        
        Relatively dry winters and wet summers
        
        30-100cm of annual precipitation
      - Temperature
        
        Generally cold. Temperature falls below -10C
        
        Summers are averaging temperatures of 30C
      - Plants
      - Animals
        
        Large grazers such as bison and wild horses
        
        Burrowing mammals such as prairie dogs
    - - Location
        
        Across the northern North America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
      - Precipitation
        
        30-70 cm of precipitation
        
        Periodically drought
      - Temperature
        
        Usually cold winters and hot summers
        
        -50C in winter
        
        20C in summer
      - Plants
        
        Dominated by cone-bearing trees such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock
        
        Diverse shrub and herb layers in the lower temperate broadleaf forests
      - Animals
        
        Migratory birds nest there year round
        
        Moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers
    - - Location
        
        Midlatitudes in the Northern Hemispheres with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
      - Precipitation
        
        Average from 70 to over 200 cm annually
        
        Significant amounts fall during all seasons including summer rain and winter snow
      - Temperature
        
        Winter temperatures average 0C
        
        Summers with temperatures up to 35C and are hot and humid
      - Plants
        
        Closed canopy, one or two strata of understory trees, shrub layer, and herb layer
        
        Few epiphytes
        
        Deciduous trees, leaves drop before winter in Northern Hemisphere
        
        Evergreen eucalyptus trees in Australia
      - Animals
        
        Mammals hibernate in winter while birds migrate to warmer climates
        
        Mammals, birds, and insects
    - - Location
        
        Covers expansive areas of the Artic
        
        Alpine tundra --- high mountaintops
      - Precipitation
        
        Precipitation averages from 20-60 cm annually in arctic tundra
        
        Alpine tundra exceeds 100 cm
      - Temperature
        
        Winters are cold and average around -30C
        
        Summer temperatures average less than 10C
      - Plants
        
        Herbaceous
        
        Mosses, grasses, and forbs
      - Animals
        
        Large grazing musk oxen
        
        Caribou and reindeer
        
        Bears, wolves, and foxes
  - - - Physical Environment
        
        Lots of bodies of water covering thousands of square kms
        
        Seasonal thermocline
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Varies with season (salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient content)
        
        Oligotrophic Lake
        
        Nutrient-poor and oxygen-rich
        
        Eutrophic Lake
        
        Nutrient-rich, often depleted of oxygen
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Inundated by water
        
        Supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
        
        Some floods too frequently
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Water and soil are periodically low in dissolved oxygen
        
        High organic production by plants
        
        High decomposition by microbes
        
        High capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Headwater streams are generally cold, clear, turbulent, and swift
        
        Warmer water in the downstream and more turbid
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Nutrient content increases from the headdwaters to the mouth
        
        Headwaters are rich in oxygen
        
        Downstream water contains oxygen
    - - Physical Environment
        
        The area between river and sea
        
        Seawater flows into the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during a falling tide
        
        High density seawater founded at the bottom of the channel
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Salinity varies spatially and with the rise and fall of the tides
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Periodically submerged and exposed by the tides
        
        The upper zones experience longer exposures to air and varies greatly in temperature
        
        Rock/sandy
      - Chemical Environment
        
        High oxygen and nutrient levels that are renewed with the tides
        
        The bays and coastlines influence the magnitude of tides
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Vast realm of open blue water
        
        Win driven oceanic currents
      - Chemical Environment
        
        High oxygen levels
        
        Lower nutrient concentrations in coastal waters
        
        Thermally stratified year-round
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
        
        Reef-building corals live primarily near islands and along the edge of continents
        
        Sensitive to temperatures belwo 18-20C
        
        Found 200 -1500 m deep
      - Chemical Environment
        
        High oxygen levels
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal
        
        Water temperature declines with depth while pressure increases
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentrations
- - - - Number of individuals per unit area or volume
      - Ex: the number of oak trees per square km in the Minnesota county
        the number of Escherichia coli bacteria per mL in a test tube
      - In ecology, density is calculated by: counting several randomly located plots, calculating the average density in the plots, and extend the estimate to the population size in the entire area
      - Most accurate when the habitat is fairly homogenous
      - Ecologists estimate density from an indicator of population sizes and the mark-recapture method
      - Changes as individuals are added to or removed from a population
      - Immigration
        
        Influx of new individuals from other areas
      - Emigration
        
        Factors that remove individuals from a population such as death or movement of individuals out of a population and into other locations
    - - The pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
      - Patterns of Dispersion
        
        Clumped
        
        Individuals are aggregated into patches
        
        Plants and fungi are often clumped where soil conditions and other environmental factors favor germination and growth
        
        Uniform
        
        Evenly spaced
        
        Terrirtoriality
        
        Birds standing on a pole line uniformed
        
        Random dispersion
        
        Unpredictable spacing
        
        Spacing of each individual in a population is independent of other individuals
  - - - Describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environment
      - Per capita rate of increase
        
        No external limits on the abilities of individuals to harvest energy, grow, and reproduce
        
        Population will increase in size with every birth and with the immigration of individuals from other populations and it will decrease in size with every death and the emigration of individuals out of the population
        
        Change in population = Births + Immigrants - Deaths - Emigrants
        
        Delta N / Delta t = B - D
        
        Delta N = the change in population size
        
        Delta t = the time interval
        
        B = births
        
        D = deaths
        
        r = b - m for per capita increase
        
        Delta N / Delta t = rN
        
        zero population growth
        
        r inst = exponential population growth
    - - Per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity
      - dN / dt = r inst (N) ((K-N)/K)
      - Describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity
      - Produces an S-shaped growth curve when N is plotted over time
      - Growth of laboratory populations of some small animals such as beetles and crustaceans
        
        These populations grown in a constant environment lack predators and competing species that may reduce the growth of the population
      - Assumes that populations adjust instantaneously to growth and approach carrying capacity smoothly
    - - Density independent
        
        A birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density
        
        Ex: drought stress that arises when the roots of the grass are uncovered by shifting sands
      - Density dependent
        
        A death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density --- K selection
        
        Negative feedback between population density and the rates of birth and death, a population would never stop growing
        
        Kelp perch mortality rose as its density increased
        
        Mechanisms
        
        Competition for Resoruces
        
        Increases as population increases
        
        Disease
        
        Increases as a population becomes more crowded
        
        Predation
    - - History
        
        Population increased relatively slowly until 1650 at which time approx. 500 million people inhabited Earth
        
        Population doubled to 1 billion within the next two centuries
        
        Doubled again to 2 billion by 1930
        
        Doubled still again by 1975 to more than 4 billion
        
        Now the population is more than 7 billion people and increasing to 78 million each year
      - Demographic transition
        
        In Sweden, this transition took 150 years from 1810 - 1975
        
        Movement from high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates--- which tends to accompany industrialization and improved living conditions
      - China
        
        After 1950 death rates declined rapidly in most developing countries and more variably
        
        1970 the chinese birth rate predicted an average of 5.9 children per woman per lifetime
        
        In 2011, the government had a strict one-child policy and fertility rate was 1.6 children
      - Africa
        
        the transition to lower birth rates has also been rapid, though birth rates remain high in most of sub-Saharan Africa
      - Ecological footprint
        
        Summarizes the aggregate land and water area required by each person, city, or nation to produce
        
        Add up all the ecologically productive land on the planet and divide by the population
        
        Yields approx. 2 hectares per person
        
        Sometimes uses energy use to calculate
        
        Typical person in US, Canada, Norway consumes 30 times the energy as someone in central Africa does