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Learning and Memory (Synaptic plasticity = changes in the structure or…

- - - - Relational Learning (stimulus-stimulus learning)
        Def: learning relationships among individual stimuli.
        
        it's the basis of declarative memory. both episodic and semantic
        
        largely dependent on the hippocampus and neocortex
        
        linked to spacial memory: the Morris water maze requires relational to navigate around the maze
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        Instrumental Conditioning (Operant conditioning): learning that occurs in response to reinforcement, in response to consequences. The likelihood of you repeating an action depends on whether oy was [trviously punished or reinforced.
        Requires that animal moves, make decisions (unlike classical conditioning).
        In contrast to classical (Pavlovian) learning, operant conditioning requires that the animal can move and make decisions. It promotes learned and thought processing
        
        Reinforcement
        
        Reinforcing stimulus: Appetitive stimulus that follows particular behavior and makes behavior and makes behavior become more frequent.
        
        Simple Neural Model of Instrumental Conditioning:
        stimulus --> neural circuit that detects a particular stimulus (Perceptual System) --> Neural circuit that controls a particular behavior (Motor System) --> Behavior (e.g. lever press) --> reinforcing stimulus (e.g. food) --> reinforcement system --> back again to neural circuit that controls a particular behavior (Motor System) through a reinforcement system which strengthens this connection
        
        Punishing stimulus: Aversive stimulus that flows particular behavior and makes behavior become less frequent.
        
        Role of the Basal Ganglia
        
        there are two major pathways between sensory association cortex and motor association cortex
        
        Direct Transcortical Connections: connections from one area of the cerebral cortex to another (from one cortical to another one)
        
        Connections via Basal Ganglia and Thalamus: Synaptic strength is the basal ganglia is heavily dependent on the dopaminergic reinforcement learning signal, so this area is the primary location for instrumental conditioning.
        
        Neural circuits involved in Reinforcement:
        
        VTA (Vental tegmental area):
        
        group of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain whose axons primarily project to the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbent)
        
        Dopamine release is a reinforcement signal
        
        Nucleus accumbens:
        
        Nucleus of ventral striatum (basal forebrain) near PFC
        
        Receives dopaminergic inputs from the ventral segmental area and is thought to be involved in goal selection
      - Episodic memory: personal experiences associated with a time and place. Autobiographical memory.
      - Semantic memory: a memory of facts and general information. This knowledge doesn't need to be associated with time or place in which we learned the information
    - - Perceptual Learning (e.g. associative learning)
        Def: learning to recognize particular stimulus. The ability to recognize stimuli that have been perceived before.
        
        Largely dependent on neocortex-sensory association areas
        
        The basis of recognition and categorization
        
        enables us to recognize and identify objects or situations, which improves our to respond appropriately
        
        allows us to recognize changes or variations in familiar stimuli and respond to those changes
        
        One of 1st perceptual learning is Language
        
        Spared learning ability when hippocampus damage and anterograde amnesia.
      - Motor Learning (procedural learning)
        (similar to perceptual learning but has to do with motor part)
        Def: learning to make skilled movements
        
        the basis of motor skills (bike riding, ball throwing, etc..)
        
        Involves different brain areas involved in movement
        
        we get feedback from our movement from out joints, vestibular system, eyes, ears and everything else --> we use this information to improve our movements
        
        Spared learning ability when hippocampus damage and anterograde amnesia
        Example for motor learning: Sequence of button presses
      - Stimulus-Response learning (implicit and explicit memory)
        Def: learning to automatically make a particular stimulus.
        
        The basis of Classical (Pavlovian) & Instrument (Operant) conditioning
        
        Involves different brain areas depending on the stimulus and response
        
        Example of Nondeclarative Memory tasks: Classical conditioning (eye blink), Instrumental conditioning (choose circle & maybe recognizing faces)
- - - - Memory encoding: Maybe for every new envenom every new moment in your life, presumably, there is a somewhat unique collection of active grid cells and place cells (or at least a unique pattern of activity in these cells) in your hippocampal structures.
        
        Memory encoding pathway:
        Cortical sensory systems --> Hippocampus
        
        Memory retrieval event:
        Partial cue (thing about many memories come in) --> Hippocampus (here you think about more specific things) --> cortical sensory systems (you think about a lot of things associated with this memory)