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CH 51, 52, & 53 (CH: 53 (Major factors that affect population density…

- - - - as x inc. y inc. on a graph
      - def: occurs when r(inst) is greater than zero and is constant at each instant in time
      - pop. grows in a J shape curve
        
        can either show and increase or decresaing curve
        
        characterisitc of when populations are introduced into a new environment or whose numbers have drastically reduced
      - EX: African elephant population growth from 1900 to 1970 has gone from 0 to over 6000
      - max rate of increases is constant,
        
        population accumulates more new individuals per unit of time when large than small
        
        curve progressively gets steeper over time
    - - it is an exponential population growth model and add an expression that reduces the per capita rate of increase as N increases
      - the per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity
      - describes how a populations grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity
      - Crowding and resource limitation can have a profound effect on population growth rat
        
        If individuals cannot obtain sufficient resources to reproduce, the per capita birth rate (b) will decline.
        
        If they cannot consume enough energy to maintain themselves or if disease or parasitism increases with density, the per capita death rate (m) may increase
      - carrying capacity
        
        K, maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
        
        varies over space and time with the abundance of limiting resources
  - - - regulate population growth
      - Population regulation is an area of ecology that has many practical applications
      - a death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density
      - linear increasing or decreasing line
    - - a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density
      - Similar to the case of r-selection
      - Ex: drought stress that arises when the roots of the grass are uncovered by shifting sands
      - horizontal line
    - - where both density independent and dependent meet
      - Ex: birth rate being density dependent and death rate being density independent
    - - Disease
        
        If the transmission rate of a disease increases as a population becomes more crowded, then the disease’s impact is density dependent
        
        flu and tuberculosis spread through air when an infected person sneezes or coughs
      - Predation
        
        Predation can be an important cause of density-dependent mortality if a predator captures more food as the population density of the prey increases
        
        As a prey population builds up, predators may also feed preferentially on that species
      - Competition for Resources
        
        Minimizing time by a factor to speed up a process
        
        Ex: fertilizer on crops
        
        Inc. pop. density intesifies competition for nutrients and other resources, reducing reproductive rates
  - - - the number of individuals per unit area or volume
    - - tagging/marking individual organisms and releasing them
      - later capture group of indi. to fraction out the amount tagged and new found
    - - Organisms can Immigrate or Emigrate,
        
        Immigration - influx of new indi. from other areas
        
        Emigration - indi. moving out of a population and into other locations
      - As well as birthing and death
    - - most common is clumped
        
        indi. are aggregated in patches
        
        plants and fungi are clumped where soil favor germination and growth
        
        can also be associated with mating behavior
      - Uniforn
        
        spaced out equally
        
        seen in birds and some plants
        
        can result from being terriotrial
      - Random
        
        unpredictable spacing
        
        independent position thinking
        
        absence of strong attractions or repulsions
        
        plants, seeds, dandelions
  - - - 1650
        
        about 500 million people on earth
      - 1975
        
        4 billion people on earth
      - present time
        
        more than 7 billion
        
        increasing at a rate of 78 million per year
      - 1930
        
        2 billion people on earth
    - - caused by the dec. in China when 60million died
    - - The movement from high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates, which tends to accompany industrialization and improved living condition
      - associated with an increase in the quality of health care and sanitation as well as improved access to education, especially for women.
- - - - Causes seasonal changes
        
        fall
        
        winter
        
        summer
        
        spring
      - Solstice
        
        June Solstice
        
        Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun
        
        Longest Day
        
        Shortest Night
        
        Southern Hemishpere tilts away from the sun
        
        Shortest Day
        
        Longest Night
        
        December Solstice
        
        Northern Hemisphere tilts away from the sun
        
        Shortest Day
        
        Longest Day
        
        Southern Hemisphere tilts towards the sun
        
        Longest Day
        
        Shortest Night
      - Equinox
        
        March Equinox
        
        Equator faces the sun directly
        
        neither pole tilts towards the sun
        
        All regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness
        
        September Equinox
        
        Equator faces the sun directly
        
        Neither pole tilts towards the sun
        
        All regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness
    - - Cool air rises on one side and lowers on the other side of the mountain with warm, dry air
      - Process
        
        Cool air flows inland from the water, moderating temperatures near the shore
        
        Air that encounters mountains flow upwards, cools at higher altitudes, and releases water as precipitation
        
        Less moisture is left i the air reaching the leeward side, which therefore has little precipitation. This rain shadow can create a desert on the back side of the mountain range
      - the influence mountains give to air flow
        
        Warm, moist air approaches a mountain, air rises and cools, releasing moisture on the windward side of peak
        
        On the leeward side, cooler dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a "rain shadow"
        
        Determines where many deserts are found
        
        the Great Basin
        
        the Mojave Desert of Western N. America
        
        the Gobi Desert of Asia
        
        Dry side of the mountain
      - West side of the mountain is a rainforest
      - East side of the mountain is a desert
    - - Results from Earth's rotation
      - Causes objects and air to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
      - Causes objects and air to deflect to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
    - - Precipitation
        
        More precipitation along the equator than near the poles
        
        Coastal regions are wetter than inland areas
        
        Higher temp. in the Tropics
        
        evaporate water from surface
        
        causes warm, wet air masses to rise and flow towards the poles
        
        water is released when wet air masses cool
        
        Ocean currents influence climate and precipitation along the coasts of continents
        
        Def: transfer of water from the atmosphere back to earth
        
        Types of Precipitate
        
        Hail
        
        Snow
        
        Sleet
        
        Freezing
      - Air circulation
        
        Some air of 30degrees, descends off to the poles, at 60degrees N and S
        
        Air flowing close to Earth surface creates predictable global wind patterns
        
        High altitude air masses descend towards the 30degrees N and S
        
        At the equator
        
        air rises at equator
        
        wind blows towards equator
        
        Air pressure
        
        air going up is low pressure
        
        air pressure going down is high pressure
        
        Westerlies
        
        winds that blow E but come from W
        
        tend to be further up north
        
        Trade Winds
        
        winds that blow W b/c earth rotates E
        
        Doldrums
        
        where the trade winds collide
        
        areas on the equator where there is no wind
      - latitudinal variation in the intensity of sunlight
        
        23.5 degrees N
        
        Tropic of Cancer
        
        Seasonal climate
        
        northern hemisphere
        
        Receive the most sunlight when the sun hits the northern hemisphere
        
        23.5 degrees S
        
        Tropic of Capricorn
        
        Seasonal climate
        
        southern hemisphere
        
        Receive the most sunlight when the sun hits the southern hemisphere
        
        0 degrees
        
        Equator
        
        Sun over head
        
        Same climate year round
        
        90 degrees N
        
        Low angle of incoming sunlight
        
        Same climate year round
        
        90 degrees S
        
        Low angle of incoming sunlight
        
        Same climate year round
  - - - Seawater flows up the estuary channel when tide rises, flows down when tide falls
      - higher-density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel and
        mixes little with the lower-density river water at the surface
      - An estuary is a transition area between river and sea
      - Salinity varies from fresh water to seawater
      - Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides
      - support an abundance of worms, oysters, crabs, and many fish
    - - High oxygen and nutrient levels
      - rocky or sandy, coastalline
      - Upper zones - long exposures to air and vary in temp. and salinity
      - Sandy intertidal zones exposed to vigorous wave lack plants or algae, & in protected bays or lagoons often support rich beds of seagrass and algae.
      - submerged and exposed by tides, twice/day on marine shores
      - Oil pollution has disrupted many intertidal areas
    - - Headwater streams - cold, clear, turbulent, and swift
      - downstream, - tributaries joined, forming a river, the water is warmer and more turbid because of suspended sediment
      - speed and volume of their flow is prominent
      - Streams and rivers are stratified into vertical zones
      - salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers increases from the headwaters to the mouth
      - headwaters are rich in oxygen
      - organic matter in rivers consists of dissolved or highly fragmented material that is carried by the current from forested streams.
    - - marine benthic zone receives no sunlight
      - Water temperature declines with depth, while pressure increases.
      - neritic, zone and the offshore, pelagic zone
      - organisms adapt to continuous cold (about 3°C) and very high water pressure.
      - seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal
      - oxygen is usually sufficient conc. to support diverse animal life
      - soft sediment
      - submarine mountains
      - seaweeds, algae, tube worms. invertebrates and fish
    - - Inundated by water
      - Basin wetlands, Riverine wetlands Fringe wetlands occur along the coasts of large lakes and seas
      - high organic production by plants and decomposition by microbes and other organisms
      - Wetlands have a high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants.
      - low in dissolved oxygen
      - help purify water and reduce peak flooding
    - - vast realm of open blue water, extend to great depth in coastal marine waters
      - high oxygen levels and concentrations levels are low
      - some low nutrient levels
      - 70% of earth
      - turnover b/w fall and spring renew nutrients in photic zones of temperate and high altitudes
      - Overfishing has depleted fish stocks in all Earth’s oceans, which have also been polluted by waste dumping
    - - salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient content differ
      - Temperate lakes may have a seasonal thermocline; tropical lowland lakes have a thermocline year-round
      - Limnetic zone
        
        deeper water
        
        variety of phytoplankton, including cyanobacteria
        
        Heterotrophs
      - Oligotrophic
        
        Decomposable organic matter in bottom sediments is low
        
        Are nutrientpoor and generally oxygen-rich
        
        May become more eutrophic over time as runoff adds sediments and nutrient
      - Eutrophic
        
        Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice in winter
        
        High rates of decomposition in deeper layer cause periodic oxygen depletion
      - Littoral zone
        
        the shallow, well-lit waters close to shor
        
        Rooted and floating aquatic plants
    - - Shallow reef-building corals live in the photic zone of tropical marine environments near islands and edge of some continents
      - temp about 18–20°C and above 30°C
      - Coral reefs are formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
      - requie high oxygen levels
      - excluded by inputs of fresh water nutrients
      - Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals
  - - - location: equatorial and subsequatorial regions
      - Precipitation
        
        Tropical Rain Forest
        
        rainfall is constant, about 200-400 cm/yr
        
        Tropical Dry Forest
        
        highly seasonal
        
        rainfall about 150-200 cm/yr
        
        6-7 months of dry season
      - Temperature year round about 25-29 degrees Celsius
      - Plants
        
        Tropical Rain Forest
        
        vertically layered
        
        trees that grow above a closed canopy
        
        canopy trees
        
        1 or 2 layers of sub canopy trees
        
        shrubs and herbs ( small nonwoody plants
        
        sunlight competetion
        
        Tropical Dry Forests
        
        Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant
        
        Thorny shrubs and succulent plants
      - Animals
        
        5-30 million undescribed species of insects, spiders, and arthropods
        
        Amphibians, birds, reptiles, mammals, arthropods
      - Human Impact
        
        Rapid population growth
        
        destroying many tropical forest
        
        agricultural and development
    - - Temperature
        
        variable seasonally and daily
        
        In hot deserts, temp. exceeds 50 degrees Celsius
        
        In cold deserts, temp may fall below -30 degrees celsius
      - Plants
        
        succulents such as cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, and herbs
        
        Heat and Dessication Tolerance
        
        Dominated by low, widely scattered vegetation
        
        Water storage and reduced leaf surface area
        
        Physical defenses
        
        spines, chemical defenses,
      - Low Precipitation and variable
        
        30 cm/yr
      - Animals
        
        Snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory, birds, and seed eating rodents
        
        Many are nocturnal
        
        Water conservation is common
      - Occur near 30 degree N and S latitudes
      - Human Impact
        
        Long-distance transport of water and deep groundwater wells have allowed humans to maintain substantial populations in desert
        
        Urbanization and conversion to irrigated agriculture have reduced the natural biodiversity of some deserts
    - - Dry season 8-9 month
      - warm year round, 24-29 degrees Celsius
      - Rainfall: 30-50 cm/yr
      - Plants
        
        scattered trees, thorny and small leaves
        
        fires are common in the dry season
        
        fire adapted and seasonal drought tolerant
        
        grasses and small nonwoody plants called forbs, make up most of the ground
      - In Equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Animals
        
        Large plant-eating mammals- wildebeests, zebras, predators, lions and hyenas
        
        dominant herbivores are insects, especially termites
        
        mammals migrate to other parts when in a drought
      - Fires set my humans help maintain this biome
      - Cattle ranching and over hunting ave led to declines in large mammal populations
    - - North America, matorral in Spain and Chile, garigue and maquis in southern France, and fynbos in South Africa
      - Rainy winters and dry summers
      - midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
      - 30-50 cm/yr of rainfall
      - Temperature
        
        Fall, winter, and spring are cool, with average temperatures in the range of 10–12°C
        
        Summer reaches 30°C
        
        Daytime reaches 40°C
      - Plants
        
        Plants adapt to droughts and fires
        
        shrubs produce seeds that wi;; germinate only after hot fires
        
        Dominated by shrubs and small trees, grasses and herbs.
        
        food reserves stored in their fire resistant roots enable them to resprout quickly and use nutrients released by the fire
      - Animals
        
        Mammals-deer goats-feed off twigs and buds of woody vegetation
        
        high diversity of small mammals
    - - Hungary, part of S America, pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, steppes of Russia, plains and prairies of central N America.
      - Dry winters, Wet summers
      - Periodic drought is common
      - Cold winters below -10°C Hot summers about 30°C
      - Grasses and forbs
      - Large grazers such as bison and wild horses, inhabit a wide variety of burrowing mammals
      - Deep, fertile soils make temperature grass
    - - droughts are common
      - coastal coniferous forest receive about 300 cm/yr of rain
      - 30-7 cm/yr of rain
      - Cold winters about - 50°C , hot summers over 20°C
      - also known as Taiga, and is the largest terrestrial biome
      - cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock, some of which depend on fire to regenerate.
      - North America and Eurasia
      - migratory birds ,moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers, are diverse
    - - vertical layers, including a closed canopy, one or two strata of understory trees, a shrub layer, and an herb layer.
      - few epiphytes
      - winter around 0°C. and summer around 35°C.
      - dominant deciduous trees
      - 70-200 cm/yr of rain
      - mammals hibernate in winter, while many bird species migrate to warmer climates
      - midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
      - Logging and land clearing for agriculture and urban development cleared virtually all the original deciduous forests
    - - 20-60 cm/yr of rain but can exceed 100cm/yr in the alpinr tundra
      - winters below –30°C and summers below 10°C
      - High winds and low temperatures produce similar plant communities, called alpine tundra, on very high mountaintops at all latitudes, including the tropics.
      - herbaceous vegetation, mosses, grasses, and forbs, shrubs and trees and lichens,
      - areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earth’s land surface
      - Large grazing musk oxen, caribou, reindeer bears, wolves, foxes
      - Tundra is sparsely settled but has become the focus of significant mineral and oil extraction in recent years
- - - - Can be learned or unlearned by associating a stimuli with another
      - Dog salivating when ringing a bell b/c it means food
    - - Reward & punishment, thru trial and error
      - B.F. Skinner; rat in a cage, green light- food comes out by touching lever, red light- no food when lever is touched
    - - Baby duck following a deer around instead of its own mother
      - Response during critical period, and is stuck with
    - - Same stimuli over and over again, and learn to ignore it
      - Praire dogs no longer screeching when a human passes by out of fear b/c they see their is no threat so they ignore it
    - - Stimuli triggering an action, autonomic
      - Goose will sit on their eggs and incubate them, as well as a lightbulb if seen
    - - Learning by watching
      - Octopus watching another octopus open a jar, then mimicking it
    - - Baby's first instinct to grip anything in their hand
      - Does not need to be learned/practice. It is an instinct
    - - Problem solving
      - Give matches, and candles, attempt to light it until accomplished, chimpanzee reaching a banana by using boxes given