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Animal Behavior and Ecology (Animal Behavior (Innate (developmentally…
Animal Behavior and Ecology
Animal Behavior
Trial and error
how animals are trained
an animal first learns to associate one of its behaviors with reward or punishment and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
Habituation
form of learning in which an animal after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding
Imprinting
the formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to a specific individual or object
geese will imprint on their mother by following her around
Observational learning
an animal simply learns by observing and mimicking
Fixed action pattern
a sequence of unlearned acts that is essentially unchangeable
directly linked to a simple stimulus
if an eggs from the nest of Graylag Goose, the bird will reflexively roll the egg back to the nest with its beak
Insight
learning that uses reason to form conclusions/inferences
chimp stacks boxes to reach suspended food
Innate
developmentally fixed and under strong genetic control
exhibited in virtually the same form by all individuals in a population
sea turtle is born and immediately headed out to sea
grasping reflex in babies
Associate learning
the acquired ability to associate one feature(such as ringing the bell) with another (such as eating)
Pavlov's dogs associating ringing the bell with eating
Motivations for animal behavior
survival
raising young
mating
food
Population Ecology
Population
Density - the number of individuals per
unit area or volume - reflects the interplay of births,
deaths, immigration, and emigration
Dispersion
random
uniform
clumped
Age structure
Sex ratio
Size(N)
immigration
births
emigration
deaths
Factors
density independent
fire
flood
chance events limit the size of the population
density dependent
disease
predation
limiting resources
limit growth based on the density of population
Models
Logistic - dN/dt = rN(K - N)/K, growth levels off as population size approaches the
carrying capacity(K)
Exponential - dN/dt = rN represents a population’s growth when resources are relatively abundant, where r is
the intrinsic rate of increase
and N is the number of individuals in the population
Strategies
Survivorship curve - selection for life history traits that
maximize reproductive success in uncrowded
environments; also called density-independent
selection
r - selection - selection for life history traits that
maximize reproductive success in uncrowded
environments; also called
density-independent
selection
k - selection - selection for life history traits that
are sensitive to population density; also called
density-dependent selection
Human Population
Ecological footprint - the aggregate land and water area
needed to produce all the resources a person or group of people
consume and to absorb all of their waste
Highest population
India
United Staes
China
Tools
age-structure diagrams
demographic transition
Biomes
Terresstrial
Tropical forest
precipitation
tropical rain forest
- about 200–400 cm
tropical dry forest
- about 150–200 cm annually
location
occurs in equatorial
and subequatorial regions
temperature
- high year-round, averaging 25–29°C
with little seasonal variation.
Dessert
precipitation
- low and highly variable, generally lessthan 30 cm per year
temperature
- variable seasonally and daily,
maximum air temperature in hot deserts may exceed 50°C; in cold deserts air temperature may fall below –30°C
location
- in bands near 30° north and south
latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents (for
instance, the Gobi Desert of north-central Asia)
Savanna
precipitation
- seasonal rainfall averages 30–50 cm per year, the dry season can last up
to eight or nine months.
temperature
- warm year-round, averaging 24–29°C, but with somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests
location
- equatorial and
subequatorial regions
Chaparral
precipitation
- about 30–50 cm annually
temperature
- fall, winter, and spring are cool, with average
temperatures in the range of 10–12°C, average summer temperature
can reach 30°C, and daytime maximum temperature can
exceed 40°C
location
- midlatitude coastal regions on several continents, and its many names reflect its far-flung distribution
Temperate Grasslands
precipitation
- often highly seasonal, with relatively dry winters and wet summers.
Annual precipitation generally averages between 30 and 100 cm. Periodic drought is common
temperature
- winters are generally cold, with average temperatures falling below –10°C, summers, with average temperatures often approaching 30°C, are hot
location
- the veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the
steppes of Russia, and the plains and prairies of central North America are examples of temperate grasslands
Temperate Broadleaf Forest
precipitation
- about 70 to over 200 cm annually
location
- found mainly at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
temperature
- winter temperatures average 0°C, summers, with temperatures up to 35°C, are hot and humid
Tundra
precipitation
- averages from 20 to 60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra
temperature
- Winters are cold, with averages in some areas below –30°C, summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C
location
- covers expansive areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earth’s land surface
Northern Coniferous Forest
precipitation
- annual precipitation generally ranges from 30 to
70 cm, and periodic droughts are common. However, some coastal coniferous forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest are temperate rain forests that may receive over 300 cm of annual precipitation.
temperature
- winters are usually cold; summers may be hot
location
- extending in a broad band across northern North
America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra, the northern
coniferous forest, or taiga, is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
Aquatic
Lakes
standing bodies of water range from ponds a few square meters
in area to lakes covering thousands of square kilometers
the salinity, oxygen concentration, and nutrient content
differ greatly among lakes and can vary with season
Wetlands
habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
periodically low in dissolved oxygen, have a high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
Streams and Rivers
the most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is
the speed and volume of their flow
the salt and nutrient content of streams and rivers
increases from the headwaters to the mouth
Estuaries
salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of
fresh water to that of seawater
transition area between river and sea
Intertidal Zones
oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are
renewed with each turn of the tides
periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
Oceanic Pelagic Zone
vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents
oxygen levels are generally high, nutrient concentrations are
generally lower than in coastal waters
Coral Reefs
formed largely from the calcium carbonate
skeletons of corals
require high oxygen levels and are excluded by high
inputs of fresh water and nutrients